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VIRGINIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
EDUCATION COMMISSION 
SURVEY AND REPORT 



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Virginia Public Schools 
Education Commission's Keport 

to the 

Assembly of Virginia 



Survey Staff s Report 
to the Education Commission 



RICHMOND, VA. 

Everett Waddey Company 

1919. 






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VIRGINIA EDUCATION COMMISSION 



State Superintendent Harris Hart, President. 

Hon. Franklin Williams, Secretary. 
Senator C. O'Conor Goolrick. 
Senator G. Walter Mapp. 
Hon. Charles H. Rolston. 
Professor Charles G. Maphis. 
Miss Bessie Taylor. 
Superintendent Blake T. Newton. 



THE SURVEY STAFF 



DIRECTOR 

Dr. Alexander J. Inglis, Harvard University. 

DIVISION SPECIALISTS 

Dr. M. E. Haggerty, University of Minnesota, in charge of the Divi- 
sion of Tests. 
Mr. G. A. Mirick, Harvard University. 
Dr. W. E. Johnson, State College of South Dakota. 
Dr. F. S. Breed, University of Chicago. 

Mr. Jackson Davis, Field Agent of the General Education Board. 
Dr. M. E. Noonan, Harris Teachers' College. 
Mrs. C. E. Flemming, Wisconsin State Department of Education. 
Dr. L. H. Ziegler, University of Minnesota. 
Mr. E. H. Huddleston, Teachers College, Columbia University. 
Dr. M. E. Brydon, Virginia State Department of Health. 



4 The Public Schools of Virginia 

SPECIAL COLLABORATORS AND MEMBERS OF FIELD STAFF 

Prof. J. E. Avent, Radford State Normal School. 

Dr. D. B. Bryan, Richmond College. 

Prof. A. B. Chandler, Jr., Fredericksburg State Normal School. 

Prof. W. B. Coggin, Radford State Normal School. 

Mr. S. P. Duke, State Supervisor of High Schools. 

Mr. T. D. Eason, State Supervisor of Agriculture. 

Principal J. M. Gandy, Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute. 

Prof. J. R. Geiger, College of William and Mary. 

Mr. J. N. Hillman, State Supervisor of Teacher-Training. 

Mr. W. T. Hodges, State Supervisor of Rural Schools. 

Dr. H. G. Hotz, College of William and Mary. 

Mr. R. V. Long, State Supervisor of Industrial Education. 

Prof. J. L. Manahan, University of Virginia. 

Prof. C. G. Maphis, University of Virginia. 

Principal F. D. Morton, Manassas Industrial Institute. 

Prof. M. D. Pierce, Farmville State Normal School. 

Dr. W. T. Sanger, Harrisonburg State Normal School. 

Prof. G. T. Somers, Farmville State Normal School. 

Prof. W. F. Tidyman, Farmville State Normal School. 

Prof. B. Y. Tynor, Fredericksburg State Normal School. 

Mr. E. E. Worrell, State Rural Supervisor. 

Mr. A. D. Wright, State Supervisor of Colored Schools. 



SPECIAL CONSULTANTS AND ADVISORS 

Dr. J. H. Dillard, President of the Jeanes and Slater Funds. (Negro 
Education. ) 

Prof. P. H. Hanus, Harvard University. (Educational Adminis- 
tration. ) 

Dr. T. J. Jones, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. (Negro 
Education.) 

Dr. L. M. Terman, Leland Stanford University. (Tests and Meas- 
urements. ) 

Dr. G. P. Phoenix, Hampton Institute. (Negro Education. ) 

Dr. W. R. Smithey, Secretary of the State Board of Education. 
(Statistics. ) 

Dr. E. G. Williams, State Health Commissioner. (School Hygiene 
and Physical Education.) 

Mr. W. T. B. Williams, Field Agent of the Jeanes Fund. (Negro 
Education.) 

Dr. R. M. Yerkes, National Research Council. (Tests and Meas- 
urements. ) 



INDEX 
Report of the Educational Commission 

Page 

1 Summary of Recommendations 7 

2 Outline of Changes Proposed 10 

3 Introductory Statement 11 

4 Organization of Survey Staff 13 

5 Report of Field Work 14 

6 Constitutional Amendments Proposed 18 

7 State Board of Education 19 

8 The Superintendent of Public instruction 18 

9 Duties of State Board of Education 19 

10 The County Unit 20 

11 Distribution of School Funds 22 

12 Local School Funds 22 

13 Compulsory Attendance 23 

14 Summary of Constitutional Amendments 23 

15 Amendments and Changes in Statutes 27 

16 The School Term 27 

17 The Age of Attendance 28 

18 The School Census 2S 

19 Text Books and Supplies 29 

20 Teachers' Salaries 31 

21 The Training of Teachers 35 

22 High Schools 37 

23 Vocational Education 39 

24 Physical Training, School Sanitation 40 

25 The Education of Negroes 41 

26 Rural Schools 42 

27 DmsioN Superintendents 44 

28 Financial Support 46 

29 Distribution of School Funds 49 

30 Local School Budget 50 

31 Property Valuation for Assessment 50 

32 Other Amendments 50 

33 Financial Statement of Commission 52 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Report of The Survey Staff 

Page 

CHAPTER I. Problems and Needs of Education in Virginia 53 

CHAPTER II. The School Term in Virginia 62 

CHAPTER III. School Population, Enrolment and Attendance. 66 

CHAPTER IV. The Progress of Pupils in the Schools 79 

CHAPTER V. The Elementary School Program 96 

CHAPTER VI. The Results of Instruction Measured 112 

CHAPTER VII. The Teaching Force in Virginia 133 

CHAPTER VIII. The Training of Teachers 149 

CHAPTER IX. The Certification of Teachers 162 

CHAPTER X. Secondary Education 171 

CHAPTER XL Practical Arts Education 178 

CHAPTER XII. School Hygiene and Health Education 187 

CHAPTER XIII. Negro Education in Virginia 197 

CHAPTER XIV. The Supervision of Instruction in Rural 

Schools 211 

CHAPTER XV. The Small School and School Consolidation. ... 217 

CHPATER XVI. School Organization 225 

CHAPTER XVII. School Buildings, Grounds and Equipment.. . 232 

CHAPTER XVIII. State Organization and Administration 242 

CHAPTER XIX. School Administration in County and District 251 

CHAPTER XX. City School Administration 263 

CHAPTER XXI. Financial Support 270 

APPENDIX A. Tables 287 



SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS 



CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 

1. To provide for a State Board of Education to be appointed by the 

Governor. 
Amend : 
Constitution Section 130. 
Code, 1918, Section 596; 597; 598; 599; 600. 
Reference Commission Report I, 1. 
Survey Report, Chapter 18, 1. 

2. To provide that the State Superintendent be appointed by the 

State Board of Education. His selection to be determined 

without reference to place of residence. 

Constitution, Section 131. 

Code, 1918, Sections 596; 597; 598; 600; 621; 623. 

Commission Report I, 2. 

Survey Report, Chapter 18, 2. 

3. To provide that division school superintendents be elected by 

local school boards from a list of eligibles prepared by the State 
Board of Education. 
Amend : 
Constitution, Section 132, Articles 1 and 3. 
Code, 1916, Section 605 ; 624. 
Commission Report I, 3. 
Survey Report, Chapter XIX, 4. 

4. To provide that the county, city or town rather than the district 

be the unit of school administration, and that the school affairs 
of such unit be under the general control of a school board to be 
elected by the qualified voters thereof, and that the present 
trustee electoral board, district school board, and county 
school board be abolished. 
Amend : 
Constitution, Section 133, to be repealed. 

Code, 1918, Sections 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 638, 
639, 640, 641, 642, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 
661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 680, 681, 727, 776, 
780, all the foregoing to be repealed. 

Sections 645, 646, 647, 649, 650, 671, 672, 673, 677, 678, 690, 691, 
694, 701, 705, 706, 707, 708, 714, 719, 720, 721, 726, 728, 729, 730, 
732, 733, 736, 739 (3), 741, 744, 747, 748, 750, 751, 752, 754, (757- 
764), (765-773), 777, 786, to be amended. 
Commission Report I, 4. 
Survey Report, Chapter XIX, 5. 

5. To provide for a wise and just manner of distributing the State 

school funds and to change the age of school attendance. 
Constitution, Section 135. 
Code, 1918, Section 719, 746. 
Commission Report, I, 5. 
Survey Report, Chapter XXI, 4. 



3 The Public Schools of Virginia 

6. To provide for local tax for school purposes and to remove the 

limit of five mills from the Constitution and fix a limit to be 
determined by law. 
Amend : 
Constitution, Section 136. 
Code, 1918, Section 739, 740. 
Commission Report I, 6. 
Survey Report XXI, 3B. 

7. To remove the constitutional limitations on the compulsory 

attendance law. 
Amend : 
Constitution, Section 138 to be amended. 
Code, 1918, Section 722. 
Commission Report I, 7. 
Survey Report, Chapter III, 3, 4. 

AMENDMENTS TO STATUTES 

1. To provide a standard school term of nine months for elementary 

and high school grades. 
Amend : 
Code, 1918, Section 669, 705. 
Commission Report II, 1. 
Survey Report, Chapter II. 

2. To fix the age of school attendance at from 6 to 18 years, inclusive. 
Amend : 

Code, 1918, Section 719. 
Commission Report II, 2. 
Survey Report, Chapter III, 1. 

3. To provide for an accurate school census in 1920 and for every 

five years thereafter and for a cumulative census for each 

intervening year. 

Code, 1918, Section 653, 654. 

Commission Report II, 3. 

Survey Report, Chapter III, 1. 

4. To provide that State owned text books be furnished to pupils. 

Code, 1918, Section 725; Acts, 1916, page 714. 
Commission Report II, 4. 
Survey Report, Chapter V, 3. 

5. To increase the fund for teachers' salaries by increasing the State 

tax from fourteen to twenty cents and to provide a standard 
salary based on minimum professional qualifications. 
Amend : 
Acts, 1918, page 569. 
Commission Report, II, 5. 
Survey Report, Chapter VII, Chapter XXI. 

6. To provide that the State normal schools for the training of 

teachers be placed under the control of the State Board of 
Education. 
Amend : 
Code, 1918, Section 940, Acts, 1914, page 567, to repeal. 
Code, 1918, Section 948, 949, 950; to repeal. 



Summary of Recommendations 9 

To provide that the course of training for teachers of elementary 
schools at the normal schools for white women be extended from 
two to three years and that high school courses now offered at 
these institutions be abolished. 
Commission Report II, 6. 
Survey Report, Chapter VIII. 

7. To provide that normal training departments in high schools be 

abolished. 

Code, 1918, Section 709, 710, 711, 712; repeal. 

Commission Report II, 6. 

Survey Report, Chapter VIII, 3. 

8. A recommendation that State institutions of higher learning be 

operated upon an all year basis with special provision in the 
summer quarter for teachers in the public schools. 
Commission Report II, 6. 

9. To provide for an efficient system of high schools without retard- 

ing the development of the elementary schools and recommend- 
ing an appropriation therefor. 
Amend : 
Code, 1918, Section 705, 706, 707, 808, 739 (1). 
Commission Report II, 7. 
Survey Report, Chapter 10. 

10. To provide for the development of vocational education and 

recommending a special appropriation for training in home 
economics. 
Amend : 
Acts, 1918, page 131. 
Commission Report II, 8. 
Survey Report, Chapter XI. 

11. To provide for physical training in the schools, and for the proper 

supervision of school and community sanitation. 
Commission Report, II, 9. 
Survey Report, Chapter XII. 

12. To provide for the development of the education of negroes. 

Commission Report II, 10. 
Survey Report, Chapter XIII. 

13. To provide for the proper organization and development of the 

small rural schools. 
Commission Report II, 11. 
Survey Report, Chapter XV. 

14. To provide for the salary of the division superintendent of schools 

on a fair and equitable basis. 
Amend : 
Code, Section, 606, 626, 748. 
Commission Report II, 12. 
Survey Report, Chapter XIV. 

15. To provide adequate financial support for the public school 

system. 
Amend : 
Constitution, Section 135, 136. 
Code, 1918, 739 (1), 740, 750, 781 (repeal), 782. 
Commission Report II, 14. 
Survey Report, Chapter XXI. 

16. Other Amendments. 



10 The Public Schools of Virginia 

PARTIAL OUTLINE OF CHANGES PROPOSED 

STATE ADMINISTRATION 

Present Law Proposed Law 

State Board 

Three members elected by the Appointed by the Governor. 

people. 
Three members appointed by the 

Senate. 
Two members elected by the 

above six. 

State Superintendent 

Elected by the people. Appointed by the State Board as 

Member of the State Board and its administrative officer. Not 

President, the Board fixing his a member of the Board. 

duties. 

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION 

Trustee Electoral Board. City, county or town, if separate 

District School Board. division, unit of administration. 

County School Board. City school board of five members 

District unit of administration, elected from city at large, 

trustees of which appointed by County board of one member from 
trustee electoral board which each magisterial district elected 

also acts as board of appeal on by qualified voters. Members 

the acts of its own appointees. to receive reasonable per diem. 

498 school districts with 1,499 
school trustees and 300 mem- 
bers of trustee electoral boards. 
People have no direct partici- 

Eation. Members of district 
oard receive $10.00 per year. 

Division Superintendents 

Appointed by State Board. Appointed by local board from 

Chairman of County Board. list of eligibles prepared by 

Member of Trustee Electoral State Board. Not a member of 

Board. local board, but its adminis- 

trative officer. 

School Funds 

State Funds. State Funds. 

District Funds. County and City or Town Funds. 

County or City Funds. Definite budget. 

Other Funds. 

Separate accounting of each. 



Report of the Education Commission 

SINCE the adoption of the present State Constitution, at 
virtually every session of the Assembly of Virginia, school 
legislation has been urged and passed. The Constitution itself 
is not limited to general principles in dealing with public 
education, but makes many detailed provisions, and in large 
part it is responsible for a complex and awkward machinery of 
control. When added to this are many laws and regulations, 
some not properly co-ordinated or related, the resulting scheme 
is too complicated to admit of easy understanding, and too 
cumbersome to encourage efficient service. 

There has for some time been a strong feeling that the school 
system ought to be reorganized, simplified, and made more 
directly responsive to the demands of the people. This feeling 
found expression in the Assembly of 1918 in the passage of the 
following bill providing for a careful study of school conditions 
in the State as a basis for report and recommendations to the 
Assembly of 1920: 

"1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, that a 
commission consisting of two members of the house of delegates, to 
be named by the speaker, two members of the senate, to be named by 
the president thereof, the superintendent of public instruction and 
three persons, one of whom shall be a woman and all three of whom 
shall be engaged in work connected with the public free school system 
of the State, to be named by the governor, is hereby created. 

"2. The said commission shall make a thorough study of the exist- 
ing laws, conditions, and needs of the schools, and a comparison of 
such progressive systems of education as will enable the said commis- 
sion to make practical and suitable recommendations to the members 
elect of the next general assembly. The said commission shall submit 
to the general assembly at least sixty days before the convening 
thereof for its approval at its next session, a revision of the school 
laws and suggested amendments to article IX of the Constitution. 

"3. The State Board of Education shall provide a fund from the 
General Public school fund of the State, not to exceed ten thousand 
dollars, or as much thereof as may be necessary, to pay the necessary 
expenses of this commission, and to carry out the purposes of this 
resolution, and the said commission is authorized to employ such 
expert help as it may deem necessary. Members of this commission 
shall receive for the actual time of service their necessary traveling 
expenses and six dollars per diem. All expenses incurred by the com- 
mission shall be paid by the State Board of Education upon vouchers 
signed by the chairman and secretary of said commission." 



12 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The Commission was composed of the following members: 

From the Senate: Senators G. Walter Mapp and C. O'Conor 
Goolrick; 

From the House: Delegates Charles H. Rolston and Franklin 
Williams; 

Appointed by the Governor: Miss Bessie Taylor, Prof. Charles 
G. Maphis, and Supt. Blake T. Newton; 

The State Superintendent, Harris Hart. 

The first meeting of the Commission was held July 18, 1918, 
when Superintendent Hart was elected chairman, and Hon. 
Franklin Williams, secretary. The general problem before the 
Commission was discussed and the following Committees were 
assigned to study certain large aspects of the problem: 

(1). Committee on Organization: 

Hon. Charles H. Rolston, Chairman; 
Hon. G. Walter Mapp; 
Supt. Blake T. Newton. 

(2). Committee on Administration: 

Prof. Charles G. Maphis, Chairman; 
Hon. Franklin Williams, Jr.; 
Miss Bessie P. Taylor. 

(3). Committee on Support: 

Hon. C. O'Conor Goolrick, Chairman; 
Prof. Charles G. Maphis; 
Hon. Franklin Williams, Jr. 

Several meetings were held to arrange for a survey of school 
conditions. 

At a meeting on December 17, 1918, the Commission decided 
to engage the services of Dr. Alexander Inglis, of Harvard 
University, as director of the survey, it being decided that the 
best results could be obtained by having an eminent specialist 
in education from out of the State direct a field staff made up 
of Virginians acquainted with local sentiment and local con- 
ditions. 

Dr. Inglis secured the co-operation of other eminent specialists 
in this country to act in an advisory capacity and to test certain 



Report of the Education Commission 13 

conclusions by the experiences of other States. The field staff 
was composed, for the most part, of Virginia educators of wide 
experience and training, to which staff the State Board of 
Education assigned two supervisors for full time and one for 
about half time. 

The work of the Survey Staff was organized under the 
following divisions : 

Division of Organization and Administration. Investigation 
of the educational organization and administration, including 
the Board of Education, the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion, the Normal School Board, the County Electoral Board, 
the County Board, the District Trustees, the Division Super- 
intendent, the City School Boards. 

Division of Buildings and Equipment. Investigation of the 
character of buildings and equipment, laws and regulations, 
actual conditions. 

Division of Attendance and Enrolment. Investigation of 
regulations concerning enrolment, attendance, etc.; actual 
conditions regarding enrolments, attendance, length of term, 
length of school course, retardation, elimination, over-age, etc. 

Division of Course of Study and Instruction. Investigation of 
the educational program offered and actually given, time allot- 
ments for various studies in schools of the same and of different 
types, text-books. 

Division of Teacher Status and Training. Investigation of 
the teacher supply, the amount and character of teachers' 
training, and amount of experience, certification, teachers' 
salaries, the normal schools and teacher training departments 
of higher institutions. 

Division of Tests and Measurement. The application of 
standard tests to children in various types of schools, and the 
measurement of the results of teaching in Virginia as compared 
with other States. 

Division of Negro Education. An investigation of conditions 
in negro schools. 

Division of Finance. Investigation of financial problems and 
conditions: The cost of education in Virginia and elsewhere, 
expenditures, the sources of funds, and their distribution and 
apportionment. 



14 The Public Schools of Virginia 

Division of Physical Education. Investigation of the status 
of physical education, school hygiene, etc. 

Division of Vocational Education. Investigation of the status 
and needs for vocational education in Virginia. 

Division of School Organization. Investigation of the way in 
which schools are organized in Virginia, school consolidation, 
the problem of the one-room school, junior high schools, etc. 

REPORT OF FIELD WORK DONE 

Division of Organization and Administration. The organiza- 
tion and administration of the State Board of Education and 
the Superintendent of Public Instruction have been carefully 
examined, and a policy of State organization and administration 
has been determined. 

First hand examinations were made of nearly every county 
of the State and of every city, to ascertain the working of the 
present form of organization and administration. Representa- 
tives of the Survey Staff visited each division superintendent 
in his own office (in most cases) and made careful record of 
existing conditions. On those visits and in conferences, members 
of the Survey Staff discussed with division superintendents 
existing difficulties and possible remedies. Definite policies 
looking toward improvement have been agreed upon. 

A careful comparison has been made between conditions in 
Virginia and in other parts of the country. 

Division of Buildings and Equipment. Members of the 
Survey Staff have visited and scored on a standard form more 
than six hundred rural school buildings and many city buildings 
in the State, care being taken in case of rural buildings to ex- 
amine typical schools of all sorts in twenty counties considered 
representative of the State. Definite recommendations have 
been prepared for the improvement of present conditions. 

Division of Attendance and Enrolment. Conditions regarding 
enrolment, attendance, retardation, elimination, over-age, etc., 
have been investigated in all the schools of eighteen counties 
and in all cities. Records have been secured and interpreted 
involving nearly fifty thousand white and fifteen thousand 
colored children in county schools, and nearly sixty-five 



Report of the Education Commission 15 

thousand white and nearly twenty-five thousand colored 
children in city schools. On the basis of the information thus 
secured and interpreted, the Survey Staff is prepared to make 
definite recommendations concerning the length of the school 
term, attendance, grading, promotion, etc., etc. 

Division of Course of Study. Members of the Survey Staff 
have examined the theoretic course of study for Virginia schools 
and have investigated the extent to which that theoretic course 
is carried out in the schools of different types. First-hand study 
of the situation has been made in more than a thousand schools 
of various types, and the Staff is prepared to make several 
recommendations for the improvement of conditions. 

Division of Teacher Status and Training. Members of the 
Survey Staff have investigated the training, experience, teaching, 
status, and salaries of teachers in all schools of eighteen counties 
intensively, in all generally, and in all cities of the State. On 
the basis of their findings, they are prepared to make important 
recommendations. The normal schools of the State have been 
investigated by members of the Survey Staff, and conditions in 
the departments of education in higher institutions have been 
examined. Recommendations have been agreed upon for the 
work of the teacher-training institutions. 

Division of Tests and Measurements. For the first time in a 
State Survey, an attempt has been made to ascertain the 
character of the work of the schools by means of actual standard 
tests given by the Survey Staff. The gift of twelve thousand 
five hundred dollars for this purpose by the General Education 
Board has made it possible to test about twenty thousand 
children in the public schools of Virginia. 

Examinations have been given in schools of every type, and 
a careful interpretation of the results made. Pupils have been 
tested in grades one to eight in twenty-two counties and 
fourteen cities. It is estimated that about three hundred 
thousand tests have been given in all, producing a body of 
information never before approached in this country or any 
other. This material is considered by competent judges to be 
the most satisfactory body of measurement data which has ever 
been collected. 



16 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The tests given were of two sorts. The first group was 
intended to measure the achievements of children in reading, 
arithmetic, spelling, handwriting, algebra, and English compo- 
sition. In measuring the achievements of children, use has 
been made of well-known standardized educational tests and 
scales. In addition to those tests a new scale for the measure- 
ment of primary reading has been devised. In addition to the 
achievement tests, there has also been given a test to measure 
the general capacity of children to do school work. In order to 
check the validity of any new tests and of the general capacity 
tests, the same tests have been given at the instance of the 
Virginia Survey Staff to children in many places outside the 
State so that proper comparisons may be made. 

On the basis of these tests and measurements, recommenda- 
tions are made to the Educational Commission. 

Division of Negro Education. The peculiar problems of Negro 
education in Virginia are considered and recommendations 
made through an advisory board consisting of Mr. Jackson 
Davis, formerly Supervisor of Negro Schools in the State; 
Dr. James Dillard, President of the Jeanes and Slater Funds; 
Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, of the Federal Bureau of Education, 
who has made a special study of Negro education in the South; 
Dr. George Phenix, Vice-Principal of Hampton Institute; 
Mr. John Gandy, Principal of the State Normal and Industrial 
Institute; and Mr. J. W. B. Williams, Field Agent for the 
Jeanes and Slater Funds. 

Divisions of Finance. On the basis of the investigations 
made by the Survey Staff, a definitely constructive program is 
recommended for the financial support of the schools. 

Division of Physical Education. Matters of school hygiene 
have been studied by members of the Survey Staff in over six 
hundred rural schools and all city schools. In addition, the 
Director of Child Welfare and School Hygiene has carefully 
analyzed information concerning physical education and 
school hygiene. 

Division of Vocational Education. Working under the direc- 
tion of the Survey Staff, the State Supervisor of Industrial 
Education has investigated the industrial educational situation 
in fourteen of the larger cities of the State. 



Report of the Education Commission 17 

Division of School Organization. Members of the Survey 
Staff have considered carefully problems of the one-room school 
and of consolidation, and also the possibilities of the junior- 
senior high school organization in Virginia. They have a 
definite program of recommendations. 

The conditions, facts, and figures brought out by the Survey 
Staff were analyzed during the summer months and formed the 
basis of the report of the Staff to the Education Commission. 
In a series of meetings of the Commission from August 27th 
to September 3d this report was presented in person by 
Dr. Inglis. 

This report contains so much illuminating and valuable 
material, brought together in such a clear and logical fashion, 
that the Commission feels it ought to be preserved in permanent 
form. This material is, therefore, printed as a part of the 
report to the General Assembly. The use of the Survey Staff's 
report will relieve the Commission of the necessity of portraying 
at length school conditions in Virginia, or of amplifying certain 
arguments for the adoption of the recommendations submitted. 
References to the Staff report will make the recommendations 
of the Commission clear and convincing. 

This report, therefore, is divided into two parts: 

1. Recommendations of the Commission to the General 
Assembly; 

2. The report of the Survey Staff to the Commission. 

The Assembly of 1918 authorized the State Board of Edu- 
cation to use ten thousand dollars of the public school funds to 
defray the expenses of the Commission. This sum was too 
small to make possible a serious study and thorough analysis 
of the school conditions in the State. Through the efforts of 
the Commission and the Director of the Survey Staff, an added 
amount, twelve thousand, five hundred dollars, was secured 
from the General Education Board for a department of tests 
and measurements. 

A statement of the receipts and expenditures for the Com- 
mission is appended to this report. 

The Education Commission considers it most unfortunate 
that the Constitution of Virginia, in the sections on public 
education, has dealt too much in particulars. In consequence, 



18 The Public Schools of Virginia 

a number of very important reforms which should be instituted 
at once must await the tedious process of constitutional amend- 
ment. If the Constitution had dealt only with fundamental 
principles and had left particular adjustments to the Legislature, 
the way would be clear for more immediate improvement in the 
school affairs of the State. 

Owing to this situation, the recommendations of the Com- 
mission will have to embrace certain constitutional amendments. 
The recommendations are, therefore, classed under the following 
heads : 

I. Constitutional amendments; 

II. Statute laws. 

I. — CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS 

(1). State Board of Education. Section 130 of the Consti- 
tution provides that the general supervision of the school 
system shall be vested in a State Board of Education, composed 
of the Governor, the Attorney-General, the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, and three experienced educators elected bjr 
the Senate from a list of eligibles, consisting of one from each 
of the faculties of the State institutions of higher learning. 
The six members thus selected appoint two added members, 
one of whom must be a city and the other a county school 
superintendent. Chapter XVIII of the report of the Survey Staff 
presents reasons why this composition of the Board is considered 
unfortunate. The divided responsibility, the lack of unity in 
the method of forming it, and the rather complicated manner 
of its choice, would seem to point to the fact that a simpler 
plan of organization would serve better the interests of 
education. 

There is a marked tendency in public affairs to limit the 
number of officials and to increase individual responsibility. 
We believe that the State Board of Education should be 
appointed directly by the Governor of the State, who should 
be made responsible for the efficiency of this board. It is 
important to fix the number of its members and the tenure of 
office in such a way as to discourage as far as possible the effort 
of an executive who may be influenced more by political 
expediency than by devotion to public service. 



Report of the Education Commission 19 

The Commission, therefore, recommends an amendment to 
the Constitution whereby Section 130 is annulled, and as a 
substitute for it, a provision is adopted that the general super- 
vision of the school system shall be vested in a State Board of 
Education to be appointed by the Governor, subject to the 
confirmation of the Senate, and to consist of such number, 
with such tenure of office, as may be fixed by law. 

(2). The Superintendent of Public Instruction. Section 131 
of the Constitution provides that the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction shall be elected by the qualified voters of the State, 
at the same time and for the same term as the Governor; that 
his duties shall be prescribed by the State Board of Education, 
of which he shall be ex-officio president; and his compensation 
shall be fixed by law. 

The Commission believes that it is fundamental to the best 
interests of the common schools to give the people of the State 
a larger and more direct participation in school affairs. With 
this participation, apathy will give place to interest; thoughtless 
acquiescence to initiative; and criticism to co-operation. The 
Commission believes this participation, however, should more 
properly find scope in local school affairs and local problems 
than in the election of a State official. 

Chapter XVIII of the report of the Survey Staff, Section ii, 
presents very pertinent arguments against the election of the 
State Superintendent by the people. With these arguments 
the Commission is in agreement. It, therefore, recommends 
that Section 131 of the Constitution be amended to provide 
that the Superintendent of Public Instruction shall be appointed 
by the State Board of Education, his selection to be determined 
without reference to place of residence. 

(3). State Board, Duties. The Constitution, Section 132, 
enumerates the duties of the State Board of Education, speci- 
fying that it shall divide the State into school divisions, appoint 
a school superintendent for each division, manage and invest 
the school fund, select text-books, etc. The Commission is of 
the opinion that to enumerate duties in the Constitution itself 
is unwise, and particularly is the duty to appoint division 
school superintendents not consonant with the Commission's 
belief as to the best method of procedure. 



20 The Public Schools of Virginia 

It is recommended, therefore, that Section 132 be amended 
to provide that the State Board of Education shall divide the 
State into appropriate school divisions, comprising not less than 
one county or city or town each, but no county or city or town 
to be divided in the formation of such divisions, and that the 
State Board shall exercise such other powers and duties as may 
be fixed by law. 

(4). County Unit. The Commission, in agreement with the 
Survey Staff, urgently recommends that the county rather than 
the school district be made the unit of administration. Under 
the present arrangement, the complex local school machinery is 
the most serious obstacle to progress. The people of the country 
have no direct participation in school affairs. A trustee electoral 
board created by statute and consisting of the division superin- 
tendent, the Commonwealth's attorney, and a citizen appointed 
by the court, selects three trustees for each district, a number 
fixed by the Constitution, Section 133, and acts as a court of 
appeal to review the acts of its own appointees. Each district 
board is a corporate body and may act in many matters inde- 
pendently of other district boards in the same county. Such 
uniformity and general co-operation as is found in a county then, 
is due to the foresight and wisdom of school officials rather than 
to the provisions of the law. It would be hard to invent a more 
unsatisfactory plan of local control than the one now in vogue 
in Virginia. The State is chopped up into 498 school districts, 
with a total of 1,499 district trustees. In addition there are 
100 electoral boards with a total of 200 members, exclusive of 
the division superintendents, or a total of 1,694 board members. 

The division superintendent occupies the anomalous position 
of being a member of the trustee electoral board which appoints 
trustees, chairman of the county school board, and commonly 
by courtesy the directive officer of district boards, and then 
member of the electoral board in its capacity of a board of 
appeal or review. The fact that this scheme has worked at all 
is a testimony to the patriotism of trustees and to the devotion 
of superintendents. Certainly there is nothing in the arrange- 
ment itself to commend it as a wise administrative plan. We 
call special attention to Chapter XIX of the Survey Staff report, 
and we particularly urge that attention be given to Table 119 
showing how indifferently the present plan operates. 



Report of the Education Commission 21 

The Commission recommends an amendment to the Consti- 
tution to provide that the control of the school sj'stem in each 
county and in each city or town, which forms a separate school 
division, shall be exercised by a school board to be elected by 
the qualified voters of such county or city or town to the number 
and for a term to be prescribed by law, both men and women 
being eligible as members of such school boards. The school 
board of each county, city and town, if the same be a separate 
school district, shall appoint a division superintendent of 
schools from a list of eligibles furnished by the State Board of 
Education, and shall exercise such other duties and powers as 
may be fixed by law or prescribed by the regulations of the 
State Board of Education in accordance with the law. 

It is further recommended that the trustee electoral board, 
the district school board, and the county school board as now 
constituted be abolished, and that the statute prescribe that 
the school affairs of each city and town which forms a separate 
school division be under the control of a school board of five 
members elected by the qualified voters of the city at large for 
a term of four years; and that the control of the schools in each 
county be under a county school board composed of one member 
for each magisterial district, elected by the qualified voters 
thereof for a term of four years. The statute should provide a 
per diem for school board members not to exceed five dollars 
per day for not more than fifteen days in any one year. Pro- 
vision should be made also that in case a county board have an 
even number of members because of the even number of 
magisterial districts, a tie vote on the election of the division 
superintendent shall be settled by the State Board of Edu- 
cation, and in the event of a tie vote on any other matters, the 
division superintendent shall vote. 

The Survey Staff recommends that members of the county 
board be elected from the county at large rather than by 
magisterial districts. The Commission agrees in principle with 
this recommendation, but owing to the peculiar situation in 
rural Virginia and to the traditional practice of regarding the 
magisterial district as the political unit in elections, it is thought 
that for the present, at least, better results will be obtained by 
continuing a practice familiar to the people. The magisterial 



22 The Public Schools of Virginia 

district is to be continued, however, purely as the basis of 
electing board members, and not in any sense as the basis of 
operating the schools. 

(5) . Distribution of School Funds. The report of the Survey 
Staff, Chapter XXI, Section iv, discusses the present illogical 
method of distributing school funds in Virginia. A careful 
reading of this chapter will clearly indicate that to distribute 
State funds for school purposes on the basis of school population 
is illogical and unfair, in that there is no fixed relationship 
between the amount of money which the State may send to a 
division and the clearly established needs of that division. The 
Commission, therefore, recommends that Section 135 of the 
Constitution be amended so as to provide for the distribution of 
school funds in a manner to be determined by law. It further 
recommends the elimination from this section of the suggested 
age limit, seven to twenty, in order to make it possible for the 
Assembly of Virginia to fix what may appear to be a proper age 
for school attendance. 

(6). Local School Funds. Section 136 of the Constitution 
provides for local revenues for the schools by the levying of 
taxes in cities and in counties and school districts. This section 
contemplates the maintenance of the school district as a unit 
of taxation, as provided in Section 133. The recommendation 
of the Commission that the school district be abolished necessi- 
tates a revision of this section in such way as to provide for one 
county tax for school purposes. Already an amendment is 
under way which would remove the limit fixed in the Consti- 
tution and provide that the limit be fixed by statute. 

The Commission, therefore, recommends that Section 136 
be amended to provide that each county, city and town, if the 
same be a separate school division, shall levy on all classes of 
property subject to local taxation a tax for school purposes, the 
amount of funds needed to be determined by the school board 
of such county, city and town, and the necessary tax to be levied 
and collected by the county board of supervisors or city or town 
council, but said tax shall not be in excess of a maximum to be 
fixed by law. The statute law should provide that not less than 
half of the funds derived from the local tax or an amount equal 
to the State fund for this purpose shall be used to pay salaries 
of teachers. 



Report of the Education Commission 23 

An amendment was offered in the Assembly of 1918 removing 
the limit of five mills on the aggregate local tax as fixed in 
Section 136 of the Constitution. We urgently recommend that 
the Assembly of 1920 act favorably on this resolution in order 
that by a vote of the people, the limit may be removed from 
the Constitution and be fixed in the statute law. 

(7). Compulsory Attendance. Section 138 of the Constitution 
is also to be amended under a regulation which passed the 
Assembly of 1918. This section places certain illogical limita- 
tions on the operation of a compulsory school law. These are 
removed in the proposed amendment, the General Assembly 
being given discretion to provide for compulsory education and 
to fix the age limit, the length of attendance and other partic- 
ulars. The Commission urges the Assembly of 1920 to take 
favorable action on this resolution in order that the amendment 
may be voted upon by the people. 

The Commission desires to pause here long enough to empha- 
size the very great importance of a practical compulsory school 
law. It invites a serious study of Chapter III, Section iv, of the 
report of the Survey Staff. The per cent of children who are 
attending school in Virginia with sufficient regularity to make 
real training possible is alarmingly small. Careful attention is 
invited to Tables 9, 10, 11 and 12; also Tables 13 and 14 of the 
report of the Survey Staff. 

The recommendations of the Commission on amendments to 
the Constitution of Virginia are summarized in the following: 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 130 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

The general supervision of the school system shall be vested in a 
State Board of Education, composed of the Governor, Attorney- 
General, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and three experienced 
educators, to be elected quadrennially by the Senate, from a list of 
eligibles, consisting of one from each of the faculties, and nominated 
by the respective boards of visitors or trustees of the University of 
Virginia, the Virginia Military Institute, the Virginia Polytechnic 
Institute, the State Female Normal School at Farmville, the School 
for the Deaf and Blind, and also of the College of William and Mary 
so long as the State continues its annual appropriation to the last 
named institution. 

The board thus constituted shall select and associate with itself 
two division superintendents of schools, one from a county and the 
other from a city, who shall hold office for two years, and whose powers 



24 The Public Schools of Virginia 

and duties shall be identical with those of other members, except that 
they shall not participate in the appointment of any public school 
official. 

Any vacancy occurring during the term of any member of the board 
th; 11 be filled for the unexpired term by said board. 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 131 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction, who shall be an experi- 
enced educator, shall be elected by the qualified voters of the State 
at the same time and for the same term as the Governor. Any vacancy 
in said office shall be filled for the unexpired term by the said board. 

His duties shall be prescribed by the State Board of Education, of 
which he shall be ex-officio president; and his compensation shall be 
fixed by law. 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 132 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

The duties and powers of the State Board of Education shall be as 
follows : 

First. It may, in its discretion, divide the State into appropriate 
school divisions, comprising not less than one county or city each, but 
no county or city shall be divided in the formation of such divisions. 
It shall, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, appoint, for each 
of such divisions, one superintendent of schools, who shall hold office 
for four years, and shall prescribe his duties, and may remove him 
for cause and upon notice. 

Second. It shall have, regulated by law, the management and 
investment of the school fund. 

Third. It shall have authority to make all needful rules and regu- 
lations for the management and conduct of the schools, which, when 
published and distributed, shall have the force and effect of law, 
subject to the authority of the General Assembly to revise, amend, or 
repeal the same. 

Fourth. It shall select text-books and educational appliances for use 
in the schools of the State, exercising such discretion as it may see fit 
in the selection of books suitable for the schools in the cities and 
counties, respectively. 

Fifth. It shall appoint a board of directors, consisting of five mem- 
bers, to serve without compensation, which shall have the management 
of the State Library, and the appointment of a librarian and other 
employees thereof, subject to such rules and regulations as the General 
Assembly shall prescribe ; but the Supreme Court of Appeals shall have 
the management of the law library and the appointment of the librarian 
and other employees thereof. 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 133 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

Each magisterial district shall constitute a separate school district, 
unless otherwise provided by law. In each school district there shall 
be three trustees selected in the manner and for the term of office 
prescribed by law. 



Report of the Education Commission 25 

And insert in lieu of all of the above sections the following: 

The general supervision of the school system shall be vested 
in a State Board of Education to be appointed by the Governor, 
subject to the confirmation of the Senate, and to consist of 
such number, with such tenure of office, as may be fixed by law. 

The State Board of Education shall appoint as its executive 
and administrative officer a Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion, whose selection may be determined without reference to 
place of residence, and whose term of office and salary shall be 
fixed in accordance with the provisions of the law. The State 
Board of Education shall divide the State into appropriate 
school divisions, comprising not less than one county or city or 
town each, and no county or city or town shall be divided in 
the formation of such divisions. The State Board of Education 
shall exercise such other duties and powers as may be fixed by 
law. 

The control of the school system in each county, and city and 
town which forms a separate school division, shall be under a 
school board to be elected by the qualified voters of such 
county or city or town, to the number and for a term to be 
prescribed by law, provided that both men and women may 
serve as board members. For each school division, the school 
board or school boards thereof shall, subject to the confirmation 
of the Senate or of the State Board of Education, appoint a 
division superintendent from a list of eligibles prepared by the 
State Board of Education on a basis of reasonable academic and 
professional qualifications. The county and the city or town 
school board shall have such other duties and powers as may be 
fixed by law or prescribed in accordance with the law by the 
State Board of Education. 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 135 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

The General Assembly shall apply the annual interest on the literary 
fund; that portion of the capitation tax provided for in the Constitu- 
tion to be paid into the State treasury, and not returnable to the 
counties and cities; and an annual tax on property of not less than 
one nor more than five mills on the dollar to the schools of the primary 
and grammar grades, for the equal benefit of all of the people of the 
State, to be apportioned on a basis of school population ; the number of 
children between the ages of seven and twenty years in each school 
district to be the basis of such apportionment; but if at any time the 
several kinds or classes of property shall be segregated for the pur- 



26 The Public Schools of Virginia 

poses of taxation, so as to specify and determine upon what subjects 
State taxes and upon what subjects local taxes may be levied, then the 
General Assembly may otherwise provide for a fixed appropriation of 
State revenue to the support of the schools not less than that provided 
in this section. 

And insert in lieu thereof the following : 

The General Assembly shall apply the annual interest on the 
Literary Fund; that portion of the capitation tax provided for 
in the Constitution to be paid into the State treasury, and not 
returnable to the counties and cities; an annual tax on property 
of not less than one nor more than five mills on the dollar, to the 
public schools for the equal benefit of all the people of the 
State, to be apportioned on a basis to be prescribed by law, but 
if at any time the several kinds or classes of property shall be 
segregated for the purpose of taxation so as to specify and 
determine upon what subjects State taxes and upon what 
subjects local taxes may be levied, then the General Assembly 
may otherwise provide for a fixed appropriation of State revenue 
for the support of the schools to be not less than that provided 
in this section. 

Strike out from the Constitution of Virginia Section 136 of 
Article 9, which is in the following words: 

Each county, city, town (if the same be a separate school district), 
and school district is authorized to raise additional sums by a tax on 
property, not to exceed in the aggregate five mills on the dollar in 
any one year, to be apportioned and expended by the local school 
authorities of said counties, cities, towns and districts in establishing 
and maintaining such schools as in their judgment the public welfare 
may require ; provided, that such primary schools as may be estab- 
lished in any school year shall be maintained at least four months of 
that school year before any part of the fund assessed and collected may 
be devoted to the establishment of schools of higher grade. The 
boards of supervisors of the several counties, and the councils of the 
several cities and towns, if the same be separate school districts, shall 
provide for the levy and collection of such local school taxes. 

And insert in lieu thereof: 

Each county, city and town, if the same be a separate school 
division, is authorized to raise additional sums by a tax on 
property, not to exceed in any one year a maximum to be fixed 
by law, to be apportioned and expended by the school board of 
such county, city and town in establishing and maintaining 
such schools as the public welfare and the standards set up by 



Report of the Education Commission 27 

the State Board of Education may require. The school board 
of such county, city and town shall determine the amount of 
the school tax, which shall be levied and collected by the 
councils of the several cities and towns and the boards of super- 
visors of the several counties. 

II. — RECOMMENDED AMENDMENTS AND CHANGES IN STATUTE LAW 

(1). School Term. Chapter II of the report of the Survey 
Staff describes in great detail the evils attendant upon the short 
school term in Virginia. In the opinion of the Commission it is 
impossible to provide adequate school training for the boys and 
girls of the State without a material lengthening of the school 
term, particularly in the non-city schools. In the cities, the 
term of nine months is well-nigh uniform, but in rural Virginia 
the length of term is variable and commonly insufficient. The 
Assembly of Virginia of 1918 in the appropriation bill, very 
wisely imposes the condition that the local school division 
should maintain a term of at least seven months or twenty days 
longer than the previous session, or for a period satisfactory to 
the State Board of Education, before it can share in the cash 
appropriation bill. This has materially improved the situation. 

In years gone by, a term of five months was regarded to be a 
legal minimum. The action of the Assembly of 1918, above 
referred to, would tend to establish seven months as the legal 
minimum. It is the serious conviction of the Education Com- 
mission that the statute law of the State should recognize a 
standard term of nine months for non-city as well as city schools. 
Code 1918, Section 669, should, therefore, be revised in such a 
way as to establish a standard term of nine months instead of a 
term of five months as indicated in the statute. 

Code 1918, Section 705, provides for the establishment of 
high schools on the condition that no State funds shall be used 
for high school purposes until the primary and grammar grades 
of the district or districts have been maintained for a term of 
at least five months. This provision is illogical from two points 
of view. In the first place, the attempt to differentiate between 
elementary and high school training in such a way as to set up 
one as opposed to the other rather than the treatment of both 
as parts of a unit of effort is archaic, and not in accordance with 
the spirit of modern progress. 



28 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The people of Virginia want high school training for their 
children just as surely as they demand elementary training. 
By proper regulation, the State Board of Education should see 
to it that advanced grades do not thrive at the expense of the 
elementary grades, but the statute law should no longer contain 
provisions which would indicate that high school education is a 
luxury reserved for the few. 

The provision is again illogical because it indicates the possi- 
bility of developing a system of high schools on a minimum 
elementary term of five months. This encourages the belief that 
a superstructure of training can be based on a very limited 
elementary foundation. The statute should be revised in order 
to eliminate any such suggestion. 

(2). Age of Attendance. Attention is directed to Chapter III 
of the Survey Staff report for an enlightening discussion of the 
problem of school age and attendance in Virginia. It is practi- 
cally impossible to ascertain at the present time what is the legal 
age of attendance in Virginia. The Constitution provides, as 
above stated, that school funds shall be distributed on the basis 
of school population, children between the ages of seven and 
twenty being enumerated. In 1914, a statute was passed pro- 
viding for the admission, under certain conditions, of children 
six years of age. The Commission recommends that the statute 
law define the school age to be from the age of six to eighteen, 
inclusive, and that the school population be enumerated upon 
the basis of the number of children of these ages. 

The law should provide for the attendance of children under 
six years of age upon kindergartens operated as a part of the 
public school system. 

Code 1918, Section 719, should be amended to read: 

Public schools shall be free to all persons from six to eighteen 
years of age, inclusive, and persons under six years of age may 
be admitted to kindergartens operated as a part of the public 
school system, etc. 

(3). School Census. Under the present statute the census 
of the school population is taken every five years. School 
reports showing among other items percentage of attendance 
are required every year. It is clear that all school statistics in 
the Virginia schools are inaccurate and untrustworthy on this 



Report of the Education Commission 29 

point, except for the one year out of the five immediately 
following the census. In other words, the base upon which 
attendance and percentage records are made is now fixed only 
every five years for a five-year period, whereas the percentages 
are tabulated every year. The rate or per cent of attendance is, 
therefore, clearly misleading. To make school statistics really 
valuable and in order that the people may understand what 
the actual condition is, it is necessary for some form of cumu- 
lative census to be taken every year. 

The regular census to be worth while must be accurate, 
therefore, great care and precaution should be exercised in the 
appointment of persons to take the census, and the pay for 
such work should be reasonable. Code 1918, Section 653, 
provides that in 1920, and every five years thereafter, the 
census shall be taken by the clerk of the district board or by 
deputies appointed by the division superintendent, and that 
for such service the clerk or his deputies shall be paid three 
dollars per hundred of the children listed. 

We recommend that this Section be so amended as to provide 
for a census of all children from six to eighteen years of age, 
inclusive, to be taken in 1920 and every five years thereafter, 
and that for each intervening year a cumulative census shall 
be made. The regular census shall be taken by agents appointed 
by the school board on the recommendation of the division 
superintendent, said agents to be paid an amount not to exceed 
five dollars per hundred. The cumulative census shall be 
recorded on a census card to be provided by the Department 
of Education, and shall be made yearly on information which 
the superintendent may secure from teachers, parents, local 
school leagues, and from reports submitted to him by the 
Bureau of Vital Statistics. This census shall deal only with 
additions and corrections to the regular census made once 
every five years. 

(4). Text-Books. Chapter V of the report of the Survey 
Staff sets forth the condition which exists relative to the supply 
of text-books and supplies. It is evident that an adequate and 
prompt supply of these materials is necessary for instructional 
purposes. Three elements of the problem of school texts give 
concern: The retail price of the books, the change of text-books, 



30 The Public Schools of Virginia 

and their distribution. So long as texts must be sold to pupils 
at a retail price, a small difference in the price will encourage 
a tendency towards the adoption of a cheaper book. The price 
is commonly the only thing the patron observes, and insistence 
upon the article of lower cost is not unnatural. Every pre- 
caution ought to be taken to place in the hands of pupils the 
best and most teachable texts, but under the present circum- 
stances this can be done only with difficulty. 

So long as books must be bought by pupils, there will continue 
to be strong opposition to changing the books, because this is 
thought to entail loss and to impose an unnecessary burden 
upon the parent. While needless changes in the State list 
ought to be avoided in any circumstances, yet latitude should 
be allowed in order to keep the texts of this State abreast with 
the best books the market can furnish. 

The most serious aspect of the present condition is the 
practical impossibility of having a satisfactory distribution of 
books. Publishers are under contract with the State Board of 
Education to furnish texts at a certain retail price and to provide 
that they be on sale at points convenient to pupils of the State. 
In order to carry out this latter provision, book publishers have 
established in the city of Richmond a depository which assumes 
the responsibility of distribution. Various methods have been 
tried in States having statewide book adoptions, for the most 
part the Southern States, to secure a satisfactory means of 
distribution, and the depository plan has more nearly 
approached success than any other method attempted. Yet 
the results are far from satisfactory. The depository sends 
books on consignment to local dealers who are allowed ten per 
cent for handling the texts. Dealers frequently undertake this 
work unwillingly, for the margin is too small to allow reasonable 
profit over the expense of carrying on the business. As a result, 
many sections of the State have no means of supply, and it is 
no uncommon thing for a patron to have to go twenty-five miles 
to get school books for his children. The dealer ofttimes 
cannot be induced to put in a liberal stock, and when this is 
exhausted, the new supply is much delayed. As a result of this 
situation, schools are forced to run for several weeks or even 
months with a very inadequate supply of texts. This means 
great loss in instruction, and delayed promotion of pupils. 



Report of the Education Commission 31 

The only cure for this condition is in State owned text-books. 
By this plan the State would purchase books from the publishers 
or their depository at Richmond at wholesale prices, and on 
requisition, furnish them to county school boards. The latter 
should have a locked book-case in each school room in which 
the supply of books for the room would be placed before the 
opening day of school. The books could be given out by the 
teachers with proper direction for their care and return at the 
end of the term. The saving of great loss in time and in instruc- 
tion, the relief of parents from the inconvenience and expense 
they now have, and the saving of the texts owing to the super- 
vision of their care and use, would in a large measure remunerate 
the State for the cost of supplying the books. 

The Commission, therefore, recommends that Act, 1916, 
page 714, Code 1918, Section 725, allowing, under certain con- 
ditions, districts or county school boards to provide free school 
books, be amended so as to provide that basal elementary 
text-books be furnished by the State Board of Education on 
requisition from the county school board, and an appropriation 
be made therefor, and that the county school board shall pro- 
vide adequate means for distribution. No bill providing free 
text-books accompanies these recommendations, the Commis- 
sion being of the opinion that the Assembly of Virginia should 
use its discretion as to the time of passing such a law. 

(5). Teachers' Salaries. The Commission urges that Chapter 
VII of the Survey Staff's report be read with special care. The 
condition of the teaching staff in Virginia is portrayed in 
striking fashion. Such topics as the supply of teachers, the 
stability of the force, the training of teachers, and teachers' 
salaries are treated in such way as to give a just and clear 
conception of actual conditions. 

The Commission holds that it is absolutely futile to attempt 
to develop a safe and thorough system of training unless pro- 
vision is made to guarantee that pupils will have thorough 
instruction under trained teachers. The quality of the instruc- 
tion to be offered is the essential thing in any system of training, 
and therefore the teacher is the real crux of the whole system. 
The wisest administration and the most expensive facilities may 
amount to nothing unless there be trained and capable teachers 



32 The Public Schools of Virginia 

in the school rooms. The public apparently has not viewed 
this question quite seriously enough. Too often a mere pretense 
of training has met with easy acceptance. When a school room 
has been provided and some person put in charge, we have been 
prone to believe that satisfactory training will always result. 
This result will never follow unless the person in charge is 
really a capable teacher. The Commission urges with the 
greatest emphasis that any system of schools dependent upon 
teachers who are not well trained and qualified is dangerous 
and may be positively pernicious. It is a very expensive pro- 
cedure also when the loss of time and the incalculable loss of 
character development is considered. It is not, therefore, a 
question whether the State can afford to furnish good schools, 
but whether the State can withstand the inestimable loss which 
may result from inefficient schools. Civilization is progressive 
and States move forward. Each generation must be trained not 
only to appreciate the inheritance of the past but to make a 
positive contribution to the progress of the future. Boys and 
girls must be trained in their early years how to think and how 
to work, if they are to be expected to assume a leading place in 
the march of progress. Any State which denies them this 
training in a serious and thorough fashion, places an insur- 
mountable barrier to efficient citizenship. It may save a little 
money now merely to pay a heavy tribute to ignorance in the 
future. 

These are some of the considerations which impel the Com- 
mission to ask that the Legislature, and the people behind the 
Legislature, do everything possible to put the public school 
system on a higher and more substantial financial basis. 

The teaching force in Virginia, as set forth in Chapter VII, is 
not adequate, is not stable, and on the whole is not well trained. 
The one fundamental fact which has brought this situation 
about and which encourages it to continue, is the inexcusably 
low salaries paid teachers. It is not a matter of less native 
ability, less patriotism, or less devotion, it is purely and simply 
a matter of the very low financial estimate placed on the worth 
of teaching. Every other profession and every class of workers, 
even the most unskilled, have been placed on a higher wage 
scale than teachers. The State cannot offer the skilled service 



Report of the Education Commission 33 

which the children ought to have, on a basis of pay so low that 
it would be rejected by the lowest class of unskilled labor. 

The cost of instruction or the pay of teachers is by far the 
largest item in the expense of conducting a school system, 
representing in a well regulated budget about two-thirds of the 
total expense. If, therefore, this problem can be met, most 
other difficulties will disappear. Table 121 shows the amount 
of money necessary to pay the teaching force in Virginia on 
the basis of several scales of salary. The average pay for 
school teachers throughout the United States is $75 per month 
for nine months, or $675 per year. It cannot be seriously 
argued that Virginia should pay qualified teachers less than the 
average for the country, and certainly no argument is needed 
to prove that Virginia cannot secure qualified teachers for a less 
amount. The Commission, therefore, urges that the State of 
Virginia make the scale of salaries for teachers at least equal to 
the average for the country. To do this will require approxi- 
mately ten million dollars for instruction alone, an amount 
about equal to the total cost of the entire school system for 
the year 1919-20. 

Under the State law, all funds derived from the State and 
county school taxes must be used exclusively for the pay of 
teachers, while the district fund is used for the operation and 
maintenance of the school plants. If the county be made the 
unit of operation, as the Commission recommends, and if, 
therefore, the district school taxes be combined with the county 
taxes under one levy, then the local county tax must be large 
enough to provide for the purposes heretofore covered by county 
and district taxes separately. In either event, the State fund 
and at least one-half of the local fund must be required for 
salaries. Assuming that two-thirds of the total budget should 
be used for teachers' salaries, the Commission is of the opinion 
that approximately one-third of the total budget should be 
provided through State funds and two-thirds through local 
funds, one-half of the latter being used for instructional pur- 
poses. The Commission's estimate of ten million dollars for 
instruction would mean a total budget of at least fifteen million 
dollars a year, an amount substantially in agreement with the 
estimate reached by the Survey Staff after a most painstaking 



34 The Public Schools of Virginia 

study of this problem. Of this fifteen million, the State should 
raise five million, and one-half of the local tax should produce 
an equal amount. 

The State contribution to the public school system comes 
now through the capitation tax, a ten-cent property tax, an 
added four-cent property tax, and the cash appropriation. The 
amounts available under these heads are as follows: 

Capitation and ten-cent tax $2,008,472.45 

Four-cent tax 498,286.42 

Appropriation, including high school amount 732,850.00 



$3,239,608.87 



This total must be used exclusively for instructional purposes. 
The practical problem which presents itself is how to increase 
this State fund to five million dollars. The only source from 
which the school fund can be raised is the State tax and the 
appropriation bill. The amount to be derived from a State tax 
is determined not only by the tax rate but fundamentally by the 
valuation of property. With the present property valuation, 
a school tax of twenty-five cents is imperative. The Commis- 
sion insists that five million dollars is the minimum State fund 
which will give promise of an efficient school system, but it 
believes that this amount should be produced by a lower tax 
rate and a higher and more equitable property valuation. 
Under no conditions can an adequate fund be provided by a less 
tax than twenty cents. If the present State tax of fourteen 
cents be increased to twenty cents, about $750,000 would be 
added, making a total State fund of approximately four million 
dollars. The Commission is urging at a later point in this 
report an increase in the appropriation bill amounting to four 
hundred and fifty thousand dollars, which would bring the 
State fund, on the basis of the present assessed values, to four 
million, four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. We believe 
that on the basis of a fair and equitable property valuation, the 
estimates given above will approximate the amount imperatively 
demanded. 

The Commission, therefore, recommends that the State tax 
for school purposes to be used exclusively for the pay of teachers, 
be increased from fourteen cents to twenty cents. 



Report of the Education Commission 35 

A large number of States have adopted minimum salary laws 
for school teachers. The general effect of such a law is to 
increase salaries. The Commission is of the opinion that it is 
necessary to have a standard salary law for the State of Virginia, 
provided minimum professional requirements be set up as the 
basis for the operation of this law. The object in mind is to 
provide at least a minimum quality of instruction for the 
children, not a minimum amount of pay for the teachers. The 
effect of such a law based on reasonable requirements will, in 
the opinion of the Commission, be more salutary than a general 
minimum salary law. The latter will have to be put at a 
comparatively low figure and may serve in many instances as 
really a maximum standard. The minimum based on quali- 
fications can be much higher and will offer a real inducement 
for teachers without professional qualifications to attain a 
higher standard of preparation. 

The Commission recommends a salary law, fixing $900 
as the standard salary to be paid any full time teacher 
who has had a regular course of instruction of the grade equiva- 
lent to a four-year high school course, and in addition, profes- 
sional instruction equivalent to at least two full sessions of 
professional work at one of the State normal schools. The 
State Board of Education shall adopt such a standard of 
equivalents as will be fair and just to experienced and successful 
teachers now engaged in school work. 

(6). Teacher Training. The relation between teacher 
training and the administration and conduct of the school 
system is intimate. It is not wise to attempt to separate these 
two departments of school endeavor. Attention is called to 
Chapter VIII of the report of the Survey Staff on the training 
of teachers. A careful study of this chapter will indicate the 
wisdom of recommending that the State normal schools be 
placed under the direct management of the State Board of 
Education to be constituted as recommended in this report, 
and that all powers now delegated to the State Normal School 
Board be assigned to the State Board of Education. This 
arrangement will not only make possible the conduct of the 
normal schools in more intimate connection with the public 
school system, but will aid in the solution of the related problem 



36 The Public Schools of Virginia 

in Virginia, namely, the reduction in number of the present 
multiplicity of boards. This recommendation would abolish 
the Normal School Board of the normal schools for white 
women, Act 1914, page 567, Code 1918, Section 940; and rescind 
Code 1918, Sections 947 to 951, continuing the Board of the 
Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro Teachers. 

The Commission recommends that the four normal schools 
for the training of white teachers shall offer a course of train ; ng 
three years in length rather than two, as at the present time, 
and that graduates shall be required to teach in the public 
schools of this State three years rather than two as now pro- 
vided. The Commission also recommends the elimination of 
school work of secondary grade now offered at the State normals. 
The main excuse for giving this work is that many sections of 
the State are without high school facilities. While this is true 
of a limited number of sections, yet the solution of this problem 
must be sought by establishing high schools where they are 
actually needed for all of the children of high school age, rather 
than by encouraging high school work at normal schools where 
it can benefit only a small number of the young ladies who seek 
preparation as teachers. 

Attention is directed to the Survey Staff's report, Chapter 
VIII, i (f), dealing with the question of college work offered at 
the State normal schools. The needs of trained teachers for the 
elementary schools is so acute that, in the opinion of the 
Commission, the normal schools should be limited in their sphere 
of action, in order to devote themselves exclusively to the prepa- 
ration of teachers for the elementary schools and for those 
special courses which can be offered in a three-year period. 

Normal training departments in high schools represent an 
effort to meet the teacher shortage by encouraging a short term 
and rather unsatisfactory course of training. The high school 
teaching force is too restricted in number, the term of study too 
brief, and the facilities for practice teaching are too indifferent 
to guarantee even reasonable returns from these departments. 
The Commission, therefore, commends the action of the State 
Board of Education in restricting and discouraging such normal 
training course, and recommends the abolition of these depart- 
ments in high schools. (Act 1918, page 69, Code 1918, Sections 
709 and 711.) 



Report of the Education Commission 37 

Training teachers in the profession will continue to be a most 
important factor in supplying qualified teachers. Heretofore, 
short term courses in summer schools and institutes have been 
depended upon to accomplish most of this task. These summer 
terms have been offered at State institutions for a period of six 
weeks, and at one or two other localities for a briefer period. 
The importance attached to these brief courses has, in the 
opinion of the Commission, been out of proportion to their 
worth. A study of the present status of Negro teachers in 
Virginia would indicate that in their case, short term summer 
courses may have to be depended upon for some years to come 
as a supplement to more serious effort. 

For the benefit, primarily of teachers, the Commission 
recommends that the University and other State institutions of 
higher learning be placed on a twelve months' basis, offering a 
summer quarter for men and women of equal grade with any 
other quarter. Degree credit shall be allowed for work of 
appropriate grade done in the summer quarter and for the 
completion of prescribed courses, degrees shall be conferred. 

This quarter should be divided into two terms of six weeks 
each, at least one of which terms should be designed to meet the 
needs of the public school teachers, but both terms should be 
open to teachers who are in a position to take advantage of the 
larger opportunity presented. 

From an economic point of view, the Commission believes 
that great physical as well as instructional waste results from 
the practice of closing certain State institutions during the 
summer. The imperative need for a larger number of prepared 
teachers and the unusual opportunity which a summer quarter 
offers, confirms the Commission in its belief that State institu- 
tions should be run at full time capacity. 

(7). High Schools. In 1906 it was recognized that one of the 
chief defects of the rural school system was the lack of high 
school facilities. The Assembly of that year passed an act 
appropriating $50,000 for the establishment and maintenance 
of high schools, which appropriation was increased the following 
session to $100,000. A campaign was carried on in Virginia to 
encourage the people to see the need of secondary school 
facilities, and to this the people responded with great interest 
and enthusiasm. From 1906 to the present time, the number of 



38 The Public Schools of Virginia 

high schools has increased from 133 to 665. Automatically the 
amount of money which the State Board has available for any 
one high school has been so much decreased as to be of little 
material assistance. The Commission is of the opinion that 
while high schools ought not to be excluded from participation 
in the general school fund, yet this participation should be 
guarded in such way that in no circumstances will the develop- 
ment of elementary schools be handicapped by the growth of 
high schools. The per capita cost of a pupil in the high school 
grades is naturally much larger than in the elementary schools, 
and if the entire school fund be distributed with proportionate 
consideration for high school work, the children of the lower 
grades will be seriously hindered in their progress. It seems, 
therefore, to be a very wise provision in the law of 1906 which 
makes a direct appropriation for high school work. This serves 
two purposes: It develops the high schools and protects the 
elementary schools. While the number of high schools has 
increased over four hundred per cent since the earlier period, 
the appropriation has remained the same. The Commission 
recommends an appropriation for high school work sufficient to 
guarantee the proper development of high schools without 
retarding in any fashion the elementary grades. The appro- 
priation must be large enough to enable the State Board to 
send to a given school a sum sufficient to aid it materially in 
maintaining high school standards. The Commission, therefore, 
recommends that the Act of 1906, page 350, entitled, "An 
Act to establish and maintain high schools and to appropriate 
money therefor," and Code 1918, Sections 705-708, be amended 
so as to provide: 

a. An appropriation of $400,000, which under proper regu- 
lation, the State Board of Education shall use for the mainte- 
nance of high schools in the counties and cities of the State. 

b. A provision that the elementary schools of the district or 
county or city must be maintained for a term of at least eight 
months. 

c. The local school board shall, from local funds, appropriate 
for high school teachers' salaries an amount at least equal to 
the appropriation by the State. 



Report of the Education Commission 39 

d. No teacher shall be employed in high school instruction 
whose qualifications do not meet the standards set up by the 
State Board. 

e. The State Board of Education shall appropriate to the 
standard four-year high schools an amount not to exceed $1,200, 
or to the two-year high schools, organized on the plan prepared 
for the rural junior high schools, an amount not to exceed 
$1,000, provided that of the local appropriation to match the 
State appropriation for junior high schools, an amount not to 
exceed two-fifths of the local amount may be used to purchase 
special equipment needed in schools of this type. 

(8). Vocational Education. The Commission desires to 
emphasize the necessity of further developing training in the 
practical arts and vocational education. Agriculture, or agri- 
cultural instruction, should receive distinct emphasis. The 
departments of vocational agriculture, conducted with the aid 
of Federal funds, should be continued and encouraged. Training 
in trades and industries has been undertaken by the State Board 
of Education, and for the current session a number of courses 
have been set up in the cities of the State. Likewise, home 
economics is now being encouraged, but very unfortunately, 
the provisions of the Federal bill make liberal appropriation to 
home economics impossible, and render difficult the conditions 
under which the work is given. 

The Commission recommends that the Act, Assembly 1918, 
page 131, to provide for the acceptance of the conditions of the 
Federal act to encourage vocational education be passed at the 
Assembly of 1920, with amendments which will make the State 
appropriation sufficient to match the Federal aid for the period 
1920 to 1922. For the specific encouragement of training in 
home economics, made impracticable under the Federal law, 
the Commission recommends that $15,000 of the high school 
appropriation may be used by the State Board of Education 
in the establishment and maintenance of departments of home 
economics. 

The present appropriation bill carried $25,000 to encourage 
building and equipment to be used for vocational education. 
It is provided also that this amount be distributed from the 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Vocational education in 



40 The Public Schools of Virginia 

Virginia is organized and directed by the State Board of 
Education acting as a State Board for Vocational Education. 

The Commission is of the opinion that all funds voted by the 
Assembly for the development of vocational education in sec- 
ondary schools should be distributed through the State Board. 
There is no good reason in the opinion of the Commission 
for the $25,000 above referred to to be distributed in any other 
manner. We, therefore, recommend an amendment to the 
approbriation bill to provide that $25,000 for building and 
equipment for vocational education be distributed by the State 
Board for Vocational Education. 

The development of commercial education, under standards 
no less high than those fixed for college preparatory courses, 
is recommended. It is the serious judgment of the Commission 
that short-cut and indifferent courses of instruction in com- 
mercial training are inimical to the best interests both of the 
pupils who take the courses and of the business interests they 
attempt to serve. 

(9). Physical Training, Sanitation. Particular attention is 
invited by the Commission to Chapter XII, which sets forth 
the condition pertaining to health and sanitation. No matter 
of public concern demands more earnest consideration than the 
health of the children and of the people of the community. 
The school room may be a place for the positive physical 
development of children, or through carelessness and indiffer- 
ence, it may become a perfect hotbed for the breeding of 
disease. Physical education is now recognized not as something 
secondary or even auxiliary, but as a most important part of 
the training for citizenship. In order for the State to receive 
its full share of benefit from the scheme of training, there must 
be reasonable guarantee that the citizens will be strong and 
healthy physically. They will thus become an added force to 
the community, and not a burden. The Commission urges 
that county boards of supervisors and county school boards 
adopt measures for the proper inspection of school and home 
premises in order to enforce the elementary laws of sanitation; 
that provision be made for the medical inspection of school 
children, either by physicians or trained nurses; and that a 
system of health record cards and reports be instituted in order 



Report of the Education Commission 41 

that parents may be notified of those physical defects which 
may escape their attention, but which are apparent to the 
practiced eye of a physician or nurse. Provisions should be 
made for the service of a competent person, who, under the joint 
control of the State Board of Education and the Department of 
Health, should have general direction of definite work in physical 
education for the children and sanitation for the community. 

(10). Education of Negroes. The people of Virginia should 
think very seriously about the present status and needs of the 
schools for Negroes. While the improvement in recent years 
has been noticeable and in a few features rather remarkable, 
yet on the whole, the situation of the Negro schools is far from 
satisfactory. They suffer from the same defects as noted in 
the case of the schools for white children, but to a more serious 
degree. Shortage of trained teachers, brief terms, poor salaries, 
and lack of physical equipment constitute the problem to be 
solved. 

It is peculiarly necessary that the teachers in the Negro 
schools be well trained and wisely directed. To entrust these 
children to slip-shod and haphazard instruction is dangerous. 
The Commission recommends the immediate improvement of 
the facilities for training Negro teachers. The Virginia Normal 
and Industrial Institute should have an appropriation sufficient 
to install at once certain improvements necessitated by the 
unsanitary conditions of the school. A more liberal allowance 
should be made for faculty in order that instruction in methods 
and practice teaching may be further developed. The salaries 
of Negro teachers in the public schools must certainly be 
increased. As long as a Negro woman can make more money 
in any ordinary field of labor than she can make by teaching 
school, an insurmountable handicap will be placed on the 
development of teachers. It is most important that Negro 
supervisors be employed in larger numbers than at present in 
order to direct the efforts of the teachers. The number of 
county training schools for Negro teachers should be increased 
and the work ought to be placed on a surer basis. 

The Commission, therefore, recommends that an amount of 
money from local taxes more nearly in proportion to the number 
of Negro children in a locality be used for the training of these 



42 The Public Schools of Virginia 

children. It recommends further a liberal co-operation on the 
part of county supervisors and school boards in the maintenance 
of rural supervisors and in the establishment of county training 
schools for Negro teachers. Particularly does the Commission 
urge that the physical training of the Negro children be very 
carefully developed, and that the sanitary arrangements of the 
school houses and homes for Negroes be observed with unusual 
care in order to guarantee that such conditions may never 
become a menace to public health. 

(11). Rural schools. The small rural school, particularly of 
the one- and two-room type, presents the great problem in 
Virginia. This problem is carefully treated in Chapter XV of 
the report of the Survey Staff. Education in our larger cities and 
centers of population is developing as rapidly as circumstances 
will permit, yet in too many rural sections of Virginia, progress 
has not been noteworthy. There are over six thousand one- and 
two-room schools in the State. Many of them in the course of 
time may be eliminated by the natural processes of consolidation, 
but it is too much to hope that consolidation will ever prove the 
solution of the entire problem. The schools must be developed 
by being put upon a basis of practical operation with a possible 
schedule of work. The grade of instruction in these schools is, 
as in the case of all other schools, the most serious aspect of the" 
problem. With them the condition is peculiarly unfortunate, 
because a combination of circumstances has encouraged the 
best teachers to go to the centers of population, leaving, in most 
instances, the less prepared teachers for the rural schools. The 
actual teaching and conduct of such schools are most difficult. 
A situation, therefore, has developed in which the positions 
needing the strongest and best prepared teachers are being 
filled often by those least prepared. 

The recommendation of the Commission for a substantial 
increase in the amount for teachers' salaries will materially 
better the condition in the rural schools. In addition to this 
increase, however, the Commission recommends that local 
boards fix a bonus for teachers in one- and two-room country 
schools in order to compensate them for the heavier burdens 
assumed, and the more difficult conditions of work. 
- The Commission also recommends that the course of study 
in the one-room schools be limited as far as possible to the first 



Report of the Education Commission 43 

five grades, and in the two-room schools to seven grades. There 
is a laudable ambition now to establish high school work con- 
venient to all the boys and girls in the State. This ambition 
should be satisfied just as soon as it can be, but no attempt 
should be made to give high school work to the few pupils in 
the advanced grades at the expense of the very large number of 
pupils belonging to the elementary grades. 

Again in the case of the one- and two-room schools, the 
practice of strict gradation seems to work a disadvantage by 
multiplying the number of classes and reducing the time allot- 
ment. The Commission recommends the adoption of a plan of 
grouping the subjects whereby pupils studying the same subjects 
and of approximately the same degree of advancement shall be 
thrown together. It is imperative that the teacher have 
sufficient time to do a reasonable amount of individual work 
and to supervise the study as well as the recitation period. 
Certain practical arrangements which will make this possible 
ought to be followed. 

The State Board of Education should be encouraged in its 
policy of assisting in the employment of rural supervisors. This 
is one of the best means of training teachers in the profession, 
and at the same time of guaranteeing to pupils a far better 
grade of instruction than could otherwise be secured. The 
Commission urges that the field of work for any one supervisor 
be sufficiently limited to permit of intensive supervision in the 
rural schools. The Commission recommends that the present 
appropriation of $250,000 for the elementary schools and the 
special supervision thereof be increased to $400,000. 

The State Board of Education is wisely undertaking a reor- 
ganization of the types of rural schools in such way as to provide 
for elementary schools, junior high schools, and standard high 
schools. The theory of this plan is to establish elementary 
schools reasonably convenient to all the boys and girls of the 
State, a smaller number of junior high schools, to which those 
completing the elementary schools can go, and a limited number 
of four-year high schools. The problem would be comparatively 
easy to work out as an original proposition, but it is now made 
difficult of solution by the fact that the location of schools has 
heretofore been usually determined by the lines of the school 



44 The Public Schools of Virginia 

district rather than from the point of view of the whole county. 
Reference is made to the "Manual and Courses of Study for the 
High Schools of Virginia," recently published by the State 
Board of Education. Very careful attention is also invited to 
Chapter XVI of the report of the Survey Staff. The recom- 
mendations of this chapter, so far as practicable, can be carried 
out by the State Board of Education without specific statute 
law. 

(12). Division Superintendents. The development of public 
schools in any city or county will depend in large measure upon 
the division superintendent. Under the present arrangement, 
his leadership and influence form a determining factor, and 
under the rearrangement of local school administration proposed 
by this Commission, the importance of the office is enhanced. 
In practically any scheme of local control, the training, experi- 
ence and devotion of the superintendent will largely fix the rate 
of school progress. If the teacher is the crux of the system, the 
superintendent is the key man. 

The State Board of Education has made a beginning toward 
fixing the standards of qualifications required for efficient super- 
vision. Even as a minimum basis these standards are too low. 
Table 115, showing the education and training of superin- 
tendents, indicates a fair degree of academic education, but not 
so favorable a standard in professional and administrative 
training. 

The Commission recommends that the State Board of 
Education raise the qualifications for the position of division 
superintendent to a standard more nearly in accord with the 
importance of the service to be rendered. 

The salary question, as it relates to division superintendents, 
is relatively almost as serious as in the case of school teachers. 
It is an actual fact that all of the division superintendents in 
the State combined receive less money for supervising the 
schools than is paid to treasurers for handling the school funds. 
If the amount paid treasurers is reasonably fair and proper, 
certainly the amount paid superintendents is entirely inade- 
quate. This is a situation which should be remedied at once. 

Table 116 shows that twelve superintendents receive less 
than $1,000 and that more than one-half receive an annual 
salary of less than $1,500. It is impossible for the State to 



Report of the Education Commission 45 

secure and hold the services of qualified men at the salaries now 
offered. In order to make the situation more discouraging there 
is a provision in the law against increasing the salary of a 
superintendent during his term of office. If the qualifications 
of superintendents must reach a standard somewhat in accord 
with the importance of the office, then certainly the scale of 
salary must be very materially increased. The method of 
computing the superintendent's salary, Section 626 in the 
revised Code, is illogical and unsatisfactory. The general popu- 
lation of a county is not the proper basis on which to calculate 
the salary. The number of schools to visit, the number of 
teachers to supervise, and the percentage of daily attendance, 
and related features are factors far more pertinent than popu- 
lation in determining the amount of work to be done, and in 
fixing its value. 

Under the present plan, the relatively small salary fixed by 
the above section and paid by the State may be supplemented 
by the local council or board of supervisors or local school 
boards in accordance with Code, Section 1438, Code, 1918, 
Section 626. There is no definite requirement in the law that 
such a supplement must be made nor is there any legal limita- 
tion to the amount. The result is a wide difference in the total 
salaries paid superintendents of divisions requiring about the 
same amount of work. In fact, certain counties which need the 
most efficient supervision, render this difficult by providing only 
a small supplement to the salary. 

Division superintendents, now appointed by the State Board 
of Education, must depend on local boards for over half their 
salaries. The way is open for the local board practically to 
nullify the action of the State Board by withholding the local 
supplement altogether. Again influence rather than professional 
equipment may determine the amount of the local contribution 
to the salary. The plan for providing the local supplement is 
about as unsatisfactory as the method of computing the State 
salary. 

The salary of the division superintendent should be fixed by 
the State on some basis which would reflect the amount of work 
to be done, would produce desirable uniformity among divisions 
of relatively the same size, and at the same time would permit 
under limitations a margin to be fixed by local supplement. 



46 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The Commission recommends that Code 1918, Section 626, 
be amended to provide that the minimum salary paid any 
division superintendent employed for his full time be $1,800, 
which salary shall be fixed for school divisions having an average 
daily school attendance of 1,500 or less, provided that in certain 
small cities or towns which constitute a separate school division, 
the superintendent may by the express permission of the State 
Board of Education act as principal of the high school, or under- 
take related school work, in which case not more than one-half 
the above minimum of $1,800 shall be paid him as division 
superintendent, and provided further that no non-city or 
town shcool division shall be formed by the State Board of 
Education the average daily attendance of which is less than 
1,200. 

The division superintendent shall receive in addition to the 
minimum of $1,800, twenty dollars per hundred for each 
hundred in average daily attendance over 1,500 up to and 
including 6,000, and for each hundred in attendance over 6,000, 
he shall receive ten dollars per hundred, allowing in each com- 
putation numbers in excess of fifty to count as the next higher 
even 100. 

One-half of the salary thus determined shall be paid by the 
State Board of Education on vouchers drawn on the Second 
Auditor as other State school funds are paid, and the other half 
shall be paid by city or town councils or county boards of 
supervisors out of the general funds of the city or county, or by 
the school boards out of local school funds. 

The local school board may, out of the local school fund, 
supplement this salary or provide for traveling and office 
expenses of the superintendent, provided the amounts and 
purposes for which the amounts are designed be reported to 
and be approved by the State Board of Education. 

It is recommended that the provision in the Code, Section 626, 
that the salary of the division superintendent shall not be 
increased or diminished during his term of office, be rescinded. 

(13) . Financial Support. The most serious problem of public 
education in Virginia is to provide sufficient funds for the main- 
tenance of efficient training and to adopt such a plan of adminis- 
tration and control as will guarantee the wisest and most 



Report of the Education Commission 47 

economical use of the funds. Up to this point, the Commission 
has dealt primarily with the latter phase of this problem. We 
now come to a brief treatment of the fundamental question of 
financial support. 

Virginia undertook the tremendous task of public education 
when her treasury was depleted. The obligation was too great 
and pressing, however, to permit the weight of the burden to 
deter the undertaking. The beginnings of public education were 
rather crude and the financial basis of operation was limited. 
This narrow conception of the cost of education has to some 
degree endured to the present time. In earlier years, the 
people in Virginia who patronized private academies, had a 
practical means of gauging what good training cost. The 
minimum charge for tuition alone in the academies and semi- 
naries of the State was $90 per capita. Education is one of the 
great public concerns which experience has shown can be more 
economically administered by the State than through individual 
effort and initiative. There is a limit to the low cost under 
which the State cannot safely and judiciously go. After making 
all allowances for the economies which may be practiced through 
combined effort, it should not be seriously thought that the per 
capita cost of training can be reduced from $90 to about $11. 
The patrons of schools and the public generally should reflect 
very seriously on this matter in order that they may become 
more cognizant of what is a fair cost for good educational 
advantages. To attempt to carry on a system of education on 
a cheap basis is apt to produce a cheap sort of education. This, 
as urged heretofore, is a danger rather than a bulwark to 
democracy. 

Chapter XXI of the report of the Survey Staff, Section ii, 
presents in forcible fashion the financial needs of the schools. 
Studious attention is called to this section. The amount needed 
for the school system may be estimated in a number of ways. 

On the basis of the per capita cost of pupils enrolled, the 
important consideration is to determine what is a fair per 
capita cost. As shown above, the private system of education 
could under no circumstances devote less per capita for instruc- 
tion than $90 for nine months, or approximately $10 per month. 
A number of school systems have attempted to maintain 



48 The Public Schools of Virginia 

instruction on a per capita as small as $10 or $12 per year. The 
failure to make anything approaching satisfactory provision on 
this basis indicates that such a minimum should not be seriously 
considered. Throughout the country as a whole, the per capita 
cost of instruction, based on average daily attendance, will 
average from $25 to $30; based on enrolment, from $20 to $25. 
If $20 per pupil be allowed for teachers' salaries and $30 be 
estimated to cover the entire cost of operating the schools, on 
the basis of 500,000 pupils, the total cost will be $15,000,000. 

The Survey Staff, making its estimate on the basis of aggre- 
gate days' attendance, and considering very carefully all the 
features of the problem, recommends for instructional purposes 
about $10,000,000 and for all purposes, including operation and 
outlay, $16,666,000. 

It is possible to estimate this problem also on the basis of a 
unit of cost, said unit to be one teacher, one school room for 
thirty pupils, with an estimate of all items of expense for 
operation and maintenance. 

If the teacher's salary be $675 and all items of operation, 
such as cost of upkeep for the room, fuel, water, school supplies, 
pro rata amount of superintendent's salary, and all other 
expenses of control, etc., be about $330, the unit cost will be 
$1,000. It is estimated that 15,000 such units would be 
required for the efficient operation of the schools in Virginia, 
which would make a total cost of $15,000,000. 

From the various view points, then, it seems to be evident 
that the minimum estimate of the cost of an efficient school 
system in Virginia is $15,000,000. The Survey Staff estimates 
$16,666,000, which amount includes about $1,500,000 for perma- 
nent outlay. The most important aspect of this problem is to 
devise the means of raising this sum. The Commission has 
already pointed out that approximately one-third of the total 
amount should be provided by State tax, and two-thirds by local 
taxation, one-half of the latter to be used exclusively to match 
the State appropriation in the payment of the salaries of 
teachers. In the discussion of teachers' salaries, the Commis- 
sion has shown in some detail the only means of increasing the 
State aid for schools, namely, through an increase in the State 
tax from fourteen to twenty cents, and the most liberal possible 
increase in the cash appropriation bill. 



Report of the Education Commission 49 

The Survey Staff recommends that provision be made for 
State instructional funds to be determined annually or bien- 
nially on the basis of not less than eight cents per hundred of 
the aggregate days' attendance, seven-eighths of that fund to 
be set apart as a general instructional fund to be apportioned to 
all counties and cities, and one-eighth to be set apart as a 
special relief fund for aid to needy counties and cities. This 
plan would automatically provide for the expansion (or con- 
traction) of the State school fund in accordance with the 
annually estimated needs of the schools. While the Commission 
believes that it would be extremely well to provide some auto- 
matic basis for increasing State funds, it is of the opinion that 
said funds should be raised by a fixed tax rather than by means 
of any variable. Automatic increases which may be necessary 
should be cared for primarily by the increase in local funds, and 
in a secondary way through the natural gain to be derived from 
the increase in property values. 

The Commission recommends that the general State fund for 
instructional purposes be distributed to counties and cities and 
towns on approximately the following basis : 

An amount not to exceed five per cent of the total fund to be 
used as a special relief fund. Of the remainder — 

(a). One-third on the average daily attendance, or aggregate 
days' attendance; 

(6). One-third on the number of teachers employed; 

(c). One-third on the basis of the adequacy of the local sup- 
port, according to regulations to be adopted by the State Board 
of Education. 

Attention has already been directed to the possible change in 
local taxes, on the condition that the county become the unit 
of operation. Recommendation has been made that the local 
school board, elected by the people, should fix the amount of 
the local levy and that it be collected as other taxes by the 
board of supervisors. A great handicap to local development, is 
the constitutional maximum o)' five mills, which is entirely 
inadequate and which many of the counties of the State have 
expressed a strong desire to exceed. With this limit removed, 
the way would be open for the local boards to levy such taxes 



50 The Public Schools of Virginia 

as will be necessary to meet local needs. The board elected by 
the people as proposed, would have a constitutional right to lay 
the levy and would be held directly responsible for the wise 
expenditure of the school fund. 

The Commission recommends that the constitutional amend- 
ment removing the five mill limit passed in 1918, be passed by 
the Assembly of 1920, and that provision be made for the earliest 
possible opportunity for the people to vote upon this amend- 
ment. 

The Commission further recommends that the local school 
board be required to prepare and publish annually a definite 
and precise school budget as the basis for the levy to be fixed. 
This budget should exhibit separately the amounts for overhead 
and general control, for teachers' salaries and other items of 
instruction, for operation, for maintenance, for auxiliary 
agencies, and for capitalization. 

It is the serious conviction of the Commission that the funda- 
mental problem in adequate support to the State's institutions 
can be solved only by an increase and a fair equalization of 
property values over the State. The assessed valuation of 
property in too many instances bears little or no relation to the 
real or market values and the consequent returns from taxation 
are too small to support in adequate fashion our great public 
interests. The widest variations, too, are seen in the assessed 
values of the same class of property in the various sections of 
the State. 

The recommendations of the Commission for the financial 
support of the schools are based on the assumption that prop- 
erty values shall be fixed on a fair and equitable basis, as required 
in the Constitution, otherwise the funds to be derived from 
taxation will not begin to meet the imperative needs of the 
public school system. 

III. — OTHER AMENDMENTS 

1. The Commission recommends that Code 1918, Section 
703, be amended to provide that school boards may charge for 
high school pupils who come from beyond the county, or from 
outside the district so long as the latter remains the unit of 
administration, a tuition based upon the actual per capita cost. 



Report of the Education Commission 51 

The present limit of $2.50 per month in some instances would 
force a district board to admit pupils from beyond the district 
at a lower tuition charge than those living within the district 
may be called upon to pay. 

2. It is recommended that the State establish under the 
control of the State Board of Education an institution for 
mentally deficient children; that the School for the Deaf and 
Blind be operated as a part of the public school system and be 
placed under the administrative control of the State Board of 
Education; that the Reform School, located at Laurel, be 
converted into an educational institution with only secondary 
importance attached to its industrial features, and that it be 
placed under the control of the State Board of Education. 

3. It is recommended that Code 1918, Section 615, be 
amended by striking out the provision that no public school fund 
shall be paid to any division superintendent of schools or district 
school trustee for the expenses of attending any educational 
conference of any kind whatsoever, except that the State 
Board may provide out of the school funds for the expenses of 
division superintendents for one conference per year to be held 
at some point in the State. 

4. The Commission recommends a statute to provide that 
members of the State Board of Education shall receive a per 
diem of ten dollars in addition to an amount necessary to cover 
their actual expenses incurred by attendance upon the meetings 
of the State Board. 

5. A statute is also recommended to provide that no degree 
can be conferred by any of the State institutions of higher 
learning unless such institution has been approved by the State 
Board of Education as meeting the requirements fixed for 
standard colleges. 

The Commission in the foregoing report has presented for 
consideration only those matters which are considered to be of 
immediate importance. A number of other valuable recom- 
mendations are contained in the report of the Survey Staff. 
Many of these have been omitted from the Commission report 
not because the Commission is in disagreement with these 



52 The Public Schools of Virginia 

recommendations, but for the simple reason that we desire to 
emphasize a comparatively few matters of primary importance 
rather than to present a long list of suggested changes in the law. 
Careful attention is invited to all the recommendations con- 
tained in the Survey Staff's report. 

C. O'CONOR GOOLRICK. 

G. Walter Mapp. 
Blake T. Newton. 
Charles H. Rolston. 
Bessie P. Taylor. 
Charles G. Maphis. 
Harris Hart, President. 
Franklin Williams, Secretary. 



APPROPRIATIONS AND EXPENDITURES, VIRGINIA 
EDUCATION COMMISSION 

Appropriation authorized to be exp nded by the 
State Board of Education $10,000.00 

Expenditures 

Expenses of Commission $$ 325 . 03 

Director of Survey Committee — Salary 4,500.00 

Director's traveling Expenses 488 . 27 

Field Staff 738.67 

Stenographers 809.00 

Clerical service 277 . 06 

Stationery, Printing, etc 183. 14 

Postage, telephone and telegrams 58.48 

Miscellaneous expenses 80. 11 

Total $ 7,459.76 

Reserved for printing report 2,540.24 

$10,000.00 

DEPARTMENT OF TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS 

Appropriation by the General Education Board of 
New York $12,500.00 

Expenditures 

Salaries $ 5,366.67 

Traveling expenses of Staff 2,596.76 

Field Staff, stenographers, clerks, stationery, 
printing, postage, telephones, telegrams, etc... 3,042.58 

Total $11,006.01 

Reserved for printing report 1,493 . 99 

$12,500.00 



Report of the Survey Staff 

CHAPTER I 
PROBLEMS AND NEEDS OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA 

NO system of public education can be properly interpreted or 
rightly understood except in its historical perspective and 
with due recognition of the topographic, social, economic and 
other factors which have given it its character and which must 
determine the lines of its development. This is particularly true 
of a State like Virginia with its eventful history, its peculiar topo- 
graphic conditions, its social traditions, and its social and 
economic problems. 

No attempt can be made here to trace in detail the influence 
of Virginia's social, economic, political, and educational history 
on the present status of her schools. Prior to the war between 
the States, Virginia had a history rich in tradition and events 
which profoundly affected education in the State and whose 
influences are still in evidence. Particularly noteworthy is the 
influence of a somewhat aristocratic and individualistic spirit 
which until recently resulted in a certain tendency to be sceptical 
of the value of public education and to oppose the extension of 
State supervision or control. 

Free public education in its modern conception had its begin- 
ning in Virginia after the war between the States, the present 
system having been inaugurated in 1871. The war had left 
Virginia, even more than the other States of the South, with 
impoverished fortunes, with the tremendous social and economic 
problems of reconstruction, and with a system of education 
requiring almost complete reorganization. The period between 
1871 and 1900 was a period in which the development of a 
system of public education was beset with almost insurmount- 
able difficulties. Judges of education in Virginia and in the 
South should bear in mind constantly the brief period within 
which the school system had to be developed and the tremen- 
dous difficulties by which its development was conditioned. 
Short school terms, poor attendance, inadequate financial pro- 



54 The Public Schools of Virginia 

vision, and other unsatisfactory conditions were the natural 
and perhaps necessary results of factors over which the people 
of Virginia, until recently, had little control. Only within the 
past two decades has Virginia been financially able to move 
rapidly in the direction of a satisfactory system of public educa- 
tion. 

i. — DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 

In 1910 the population of Virginia was 2,061,612. The aver- 
age growth per decade from 1880 to 1910 was approximately 
eleven per cent. There appears little reason to expect that for 
the State as a whole any extraordinary increase of population 
will complicate problems of education in the near future. 

More significant than the size of the population is its distri- 
bution in various parts of the State. In Table 1 (A) are 
presented figures showing that in most parts of the State the 
population is small and scattered, and in Table 1 (B) are pre- 
sented figures showing that nearly three-fourths of the counties 
of the State are one hundred per cent rural in the sense that 
all the population lives in the open country or in communities 
of less than 2,500 inhabitants. According to the Thirteenth 
Census three-quarters of the State was rural in 1910. Much 
less accurate but more recent figures indicate that about three- 
fifths of the estimated population live either in the open country 
or in communities of less than one hundred persons. (See 
Table 2.) 

This sparse and scattered population in most parts of the 
State has several important results for education: (1) It makes 
extremely difficult proper provision for schools in many districts; 
(2) it necessitates the maintenance of a larger number of small 
one-teacher and two-teacher schools, especially in districts 
where mountain ranges (in the West) or rivers, creeks and 
swamps (in the East) isolate communities; (3) it emphasizes 
the importance of provision for school consolidation and the 
transportation of pupils; (4) it renders very difficult the main- 
tenance of schools for negroes in some portions of the State, 
e. g., in the thirty-nine counties where there are ten colored 
persons or less of all ages to the square mile; (5) it emphasizes 
the importance in most parts of the State of provision for a 
form of education adapted to rural life. 



Problems and Needs of Education 55 

It is true, of course, that the natural tendency to congregate 
in certain districts of a county makes these problems less diffi- 
cult than might appear from the figures given for any county 
as a whole. Nevertheless, it remains true that in most parts 
of the State the sparse and scattered population creates serious 
problems for education, all the more because of the necessity 
of providing separate schools for white children and for colored 
children. The most difficult problems of education in any 
State are those of providing anything like equality of educa- 
tional opportunity for children in rural districts. In Virginia, 
as in other Southern States, this problem is greatly increased 
by the necessity of providing a dual system of education for 
white and colored children. Critics of education in the State 
should bear in mind this fact. 

ii. — THE RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION 

In 1910 native whites of native parentage constituted 64.3 
per cent of the total population of Virginia, and 95.4 per cent 
of the white population. Native whites of foreign or mixed 
parentage constituted only 1.8 per cent of the total population, 
and foreign-born whites only 1.3 per cent. Of the rural popu- 
lation native whites of foreign or mixed parentage constituted 
but 1.0 per cent of the population, and foreign-born whites 
only 0.8 per cent. For the urban population those proportions 
were respectively 4.5 per cent, and 2.9 per cent. 

Of the one hundred counties in the State (excluding figures for 
cities enumerated in the census) forty-one contained each less 
than one per cent of combined native whites of foreign or 
mixed parentage and foreign-born whites, sixty-eight contained 
each less than two per cent of those combined groups, and 
only eight (mostly of a suburban character or affected by nearby 
cities) had each as much as five per cent of the population com- 
posed of native whites of foreign or mixed parentage and for- 
eign-born whites combined. Seven cities (Alexandria, Newport 
News, Norfolk, Richmond, Portsmouth, Roanoke, Staunton) 
contained each a population of which five or more per cent 
was composed of whites of foreign or mixed parentage and for- 
eign-born whites combined. Some of the purest native white 
stock in America is found in Bland, Buchanan, Carroll, Dicken- 



56 The Public Schools of Virginia 

son, Grayson, Scott and Shenandoah Counties, each of which 
has more than 95 per cent of the total population composed 
of native whites of native parentage. 

It is clear that education in Virginia is little affected by the 
foreign element in its population, except possibly in a few cities 
and except as persistent social heredity affects educational 
standards and ideals in certain sections of the state. 

On the other hand the distribution of population according 
to color creates problems of far-reaching importance for society 
and for education in Virginia. In 1910, according to the Fed- 
eral Census, there were 671,076 negroes in the state out of a 
total population of 2,061,612, the per cent of negro population 
being 32.6, as compared with a per cent of 35.6 in 1900. At 
the time of the last federal census Virginia was the eighth state 
in the country in the number of negroes, and the seventh state 
in the proportion of negroes in the total population. The only 
other states having a larger proportion of negro population in 
1910 were South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Missis- 
sippi, and Louisiana. 

If the negro population were distributed evenly over the 
state the educational problems created would be somewhat 
less difficult than they are under existing conditions, where 
the great bulk of the negro population is concentrated in the 
region east and southeast of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The 
general distribution of negroes in the state may to be seen from 
the figures presented in Table 1 (C). 

According to the school census of 1915 there were no colored 
children of school age in Buchanan County, one in Dickenson 
County, thirty-three in Craig County. In those counties 
there are no schools for colored children and none could be 
justified. At the other extreme we find Pittsylvania County 
with 6,147 colored children of school age and Norfolk County 
(exclusive of cities) with 9,444 colored children. Between 
those extremes are found all degrees and proportions of colored 
population. Obviously problems of negro education are radi- 
cally different in different parts of the State. 

iii. — OCCUPATIONAL FACTORS 

A wide variety of occupational activities characterizes the 
economic life of Virginia. In such cities as Newport Ne7. r « ; 



Problems and Needs of Education 57 

Portsmouth, and Norfolk the shipping trades and their allied 
industries dominate the field. Suffolk is the centre of the pea- 
nut trade, Roanoke is a railroad city. Other cities have their 
peculiar industrial or trade activities. Districts bordering on 
the river mouths and on Chesapeake Bay are centers of the 
oyster and fish trade. Mining is the dominant industry in parts 
of the western mountain districts. 

In Table 3 are presented figures showing the distribution 
of persons engaged in gainful occupations in 1910. From those 
figures it is clear that at that date Virginia was still primarily 
an agricultural State, forty-five per cent of all engaged in gain- 
ful occupations being engaged in agriculture. 

Within the past few years the war activities have materially 
modified the economic situation in the eastern part of the State. 
How permanent the changes may be it is impossible to judge. 
In all probability increased industrial and trade activities will 
continue to dominate in a few centres. There can be little 
doubt, however, that agriculture will continue to be the main 
form of economic activity in most parts of the State. 

Virginia is rich in natural resources, and is fortunately situ- 
ated for purposes of commerce and trade. The development 
of those resources and the materialization of the opportunities 
for commerce and trade must depend in no small degree on the 
education which is provided to develop economic and social 
efficiency of Virginia's citizens. Unless Virginia is willing, 
through the education of her citizens, to develop a capital of 
intellectual, economic and social efficiency she cannot hope to 
compete with other States which may have less natural resources 
but have learned the economic value of a well supported sys- 
tem of education. 

IV. — ILLITERACY 

In 1910, according to the Thirteenth Census, 15.2 per cent 
of the total population, 8.2 per cent of the native white popu- 
lation, and 30.0 per cent of the negro population were illiterate 
in the sense that they could not read or write. At that time 
Virginia occupied the fortieth place among the forty-eight 
States with respect to the proportion of illiterates in the total 
population, forty-first place with respect to the proportion of 



58 The Public Schools of Virginia 

illiterates in the native-white of native-parentage population 
and forty-second place with respect to the proportion of illit- 
erates in the negro population. (See Table 4.) 

At the same time the per cents of illiteracy among children 
ten to fourteen years of age were 5.7 for white children of native 
parentage, 16.0 for negro children, and 9.2 for all classes, Vir- 
ginia tying with Georgia for forty-second place with respect 
to illiteracy among white children of native parentage, occu- 
pying the fortieth position for illiteracy among negro children, 
and occupying the the thirty-ninth position for illiteracy among 
children of all classes ten to fourteen years of age. (See Table 4.) 

Illiteracy is greatest in the rural districts where in 1910 one 
in every ten white persons, one in about every three negroes, and 
one in about every six of the total population could not read or 
write. Conditions in various districts vary greatly as may be 
seen from the figures presented in Table 5, eight counties hav- 
ing (in 1910) more than twenty per cent of the white population 
illiterate, ten counties having (in 1910) more than one-half of 
the negro population illiterate, and eighteen counties having 
(in 1910) more than fifteen per cent of children ten to twenty 
years of age illiterate. 

Undoubtedly conditions of literacy have greatly improved 
since 1910. In Table 5 are presented figures showing the per 
cents of illiteracy in the counties of Virginia according to the 
State School Census of 1915 for children of ages seven to nine- 
teen inclusive. Those figures are of very doubtful reliability, 
as for that matter are all figures for illiteracy. 

According to the figures of the State School Census for chil- 
dren of school age 3.3 per cent of the white children, 8.5 per 
cent of the colored children, and 4.7 per cent of all children in 
the non-city districts of the State were illiterate in 1915. In 
the cities the corresponding figures were 0.5 per cent for white 
children, 5.0 per cent for colored children, and 2.0 per cent 
for all. For the State as a whole (counties and cities combined) 
the corresponding figures were 2.8 per cent for white children, 
8.9 per cent for colored children, and 4.2 per cent for all. 1 



1 Figures for totals given in the Report of the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, 1917-18, p. 102, are obviously wrong by misplaced 
decimals. 



Problems and Needs of Education 59 

In all probability the figures in the Federal census and in the 
State School census have a wide margin of error because of the 
obvious difficulties of obtaining the true facts concerning 
illiteracy. The chances are great that these figures are too low. 

Illiteracy in Virginia is undoubtedly still an important prob- 
lem. Even greater, however, is the problem of near illiteracy. 
Where absolute illiteracy in the State is measured by its hun- 
dreds, near illiteracy as the result of very brief school attendance 
and very short school terms, is measured by its thousands. 
Mere ability to write one's name or to pick out words in the 
simplest newspaper article is practically of no greater value, as 
measured by the present needs, than absolute illiteracy. Near 
illiteracy as well as absolute illiteracy must be eliminated in 
Virginia. 

V. IMPERATIVE NEEDS 

In the following chapters of this report are presented findings 
and recommendations concerning the public schools of Virginia. 
As an aid to their interpretation a brief statement here may be 
made of the principal needs at present imperative. 

(1). The School Term must be Lengthened: In 1917-18 the 
length of the school term was on the average only 140 
school days in the county schools and only 147 school days for all 
schools in the State. In some counties the average term was as 
low as 112 school days for white schools and 98 school days for 
colored schools. A minimum term of 180 school days must be set 
as the standard for each school in the State. (Chapter II.) 

(2). An Effective Compulsory Attendance Law must be Pro- 
vided: At present public school funds are in part all but wasted 
and children are losing their opportunities for education because 
of low enrolments and poor attendance. In 1917-18 more than 
one-third of the education provided was lost through poor 
attendance. The number of days' schooling actually received 
by children in Virginia was less than 100. The present "com- 
pulsory attendance" law is practically useless. A real compul- 
sory attendance law must be provided at once. (Chapter III.) 

(3). Grading and School Organization must be Improved: At 
present in the non-city districts of Virginia the grading (i.e., the 



60 The Public Schools of Virginia 

distribution of pupils by grades) is in general very defective and 
in many rural schools cannot be described as other than chaotic. 
Pupils enter school at any age from five to ten, apparently 
according to their own caprice or the whim of their parents. 
Once in school their progress is extremely irregular so that there 
is little correlation between their grade in school and their age 
or length of enrolment. The present situation in non-city districts 
must be remedied (a) by proper attendance laws, (b) by provision 
for better teachers, (c) by better school organization. (Chapter IV.) 

(4). Better Trained Teachers are Needed: At present in Vir- 
ginia the teaching force is relatively unstable, teachers in general 
are not trained for their tasks, and the pay of teachers is lower 
than that of unskilled labor. The most imperative need of public 
education in Virginia is provision for well trained and well paid 
teachers. (Chapters VII to IX.) 

(5). Improvements are Needed in the Program of Education 
Provided: At present important forms of education are sadly 
neglected. This is particularly true of practical arts or voca- 
tional education and of physical education. The elementary 
school program, in rural schools particularly, is very limited in 
its actual scope and the high schools provide a program almost 
exclusively academic. Provision must be made for an expansion 
of the instructional program. (Chapters V, XI and XII.) 

(6). Consolidation must be Increased: Approximately 80 per 
cent of all the schools of Virginia are at present one-teacher or 
two-teacher schools and more than one-half of all pupils are 
attending such schools. Beyond question the peculiar topo- 
graphic conditions of the State and the distribution of popu- 
lation will always necessitate a large number of one-teacher 
and two-teacher schools. Nevertheless the present number 
can and should be greatly reduced in the interests of the chil- 
dren enrolled. School consolidation must be greatly increased in 
Virginia. (Chapters XV and XVI.) 

(7). The School Plant must be Improved: In some parts of 
the State excellent provision is made for school buildings, 
school grounds, and equipment. In general, however, there is 
great need for improvement in the selection of sites, in the con- 
struction of buildings, and in the physical equipment. In 



Problems and Needs of Education 61 

many districts (unfortunately not few) the school plant can- 
not be described otherwise than as disgraceful. Measures are 
needed for improvement in the construction and care of the school 
plant. (Chapter XVII.) 

(8). Better Supervision must be Provided for Rural Schools. 
(Chapter XIV.) 

(9) . State and local systems of Administration must be Changed : 
The present forms of State and local organization and adminis- 
tration are not in conformance with accepted standards or the 
best practice. In the judgment of the Survey Staff the proper 
development of public education in Virginia demands a thor- 
ough reorganization of the system of administrative organiza- 
tion. (Chapters XVIII, XIX, and XX.) 

(10). The financial support of Pubilic Schools must be greatly 
Increased: There is no possibility of effective education in 
the public schools of Virginia on the basis of present financial 
support. Not less than a seventy-five per cent increase can suf- 
fice to place education in Virginia on a footing equal to the national 
average. (Chapter XXI.) 

(11). The methods of raising and distributing school funds 
must be changed: Present methods of raising and distributing 
school funds in Virginia are very defective and in some cases 
defeat the very ends which they are intended to accomplish. 
(Chapter XXI). 



CHAPTER II 
THE SCHOOL TERM IN VIRGINIA 

IT is obvious that a fundamental problem involved in deter- 
mining the efficiency of any system of public schools is that 
which concerns the amount of education provided for and 
received by the children for whom the schools are maintained. 
In succeeding chapters is considered the amount of education 
received by the children of Virginia. In this chapter is consid- 
ered the amount of education which is provided for them, as 
far as that may be measured by the length of the school term. 

The school term (i.e., the length of time that schools are open 
during the school year) is noticeably shorter in Virginia and 
throughout the South than in other parts of the country. 
According to the latest available reports of the United States 
Bureau of Education (1915-16) the average length of the school 
term in Virginia was 141 days, as compared with a national 
average of 160 days, a North Atlantic States average of 182 
days, a North Central States average of 167 days, a Western 
States average of 168 days, a Southern States average of 135 
days, and a "standard" term of 180 days. At that time Vir- 
ginia's rank was thirty seventh among the forty eight states, 
all with lower records being southern states. 

In the cities of Virginia the average school term is approxi- 
mately of standard length (nine months) and compares favor- 
ably with that in other parts of the country, but in the counties 
the average length of the term for white schools is about seven 
and one-third months (147 school days) and for colored schools 
is about six months (120 school days). In Table 6 are presented 
figures showing the number of counties having various averages 
for the length of the school term in 1917-18. In that year one- 
half of the hundred counties of the State kept their white schools 
open on the average less than seven and one-third months and 
their colored schools less than six months. For one-room and 
two-room schools the corresponding figures were six and one- 
half months for white schools and five and nine-tenths months 
for colored schools. In more than one-third of the counties 



The School Term 



63 



the county-wide averages for the school term were seven months 
or less for white schools. For one-room and two-room white 
schools the county-wide averages were six months or less in 
one-third of the State. For colored schools of the same classes 
the county-wide averages were six months or less in three-fifths 
of the State. 

It is to be noted that the figures given in Table 6 represent 
county averages, not the records for individual schools. Natu- 
rally some schools have better records and naturally some 
schools have even worse records. In Table 7 are presented 
figures for 748 non-city white schools and 230 non-city colored 
schools. Of those white schools sixty-five (nearly nine per cent) 
had school terms of five months or less. Of the colored schools 
nearly one-third had school terms of five months or less, and 
about two-thirds had school terms of only six months or less 
in 1917-18. Obviously "average" records are very misleading. 

Figure 1 

Showing the 'population of non-city schools having in 1917-18 
school terms of various lengths 
See Table 7 
White non-city schools 




Colored non-city schools 





Schools with terms of five months or less. 
Schools with terms of 5.1 to 6.0 months. 
Schools with terms of 6.1 to 7.0 months. 
Schools with terms of 7.1 to 8.0 months. 
Schools with terms of more than eight months. 



The significance of the short school term may be made clearer 
if we estimate the time it would take a pupil in a short-term 
school to secure the time equivalent of a full school course with 



64 The Public Schools of Virginia 

a standard school term. A pupil who attended faithfully and 
availed himself of the entire course offered in a school whose 
term is six months would require more than sixteen years to 
secure the time equivalent of eleven grades of education in a 
school having a nine-month term — and if he entered school at 
the age of seven he would be twenty-three years old when that 
school education was completed. Yet an eleven-grade course 
with a nine-month term is only the accepted standard for the 
better schools of Virginia. If the same pupil expected to meet 
the time equivalent of the twelve-grade course with a nine- 
month term found in most parts of the country, he would require 
eighteen years and would be twenty-five years of age at its 
completion. 

Let not the absurd assumption of such a procedure obscure 
the seriousness of the situation in Virginia. It is true that no 
pupil would ever follow the procedure indicated. It is also true, 
however, that in many schools of Virginia the pupils can never 
receive the equivalent education and it is equally absurd to 
suppose that pupils can ever receive an adequate education in 
short-term schools. 

In this connection it may be noted further that Virginia not 
only has a short school term, but also, following the Southern 
practice, provides an eleven-grade school course, in contrast 
with the twelve-grade course which is the standard in all other 
parts of the country. The general problem of school organi- 
zation is considered later in this report. It may be observed 
here, however, that the combination of a short school term and 
a short school course increases the time discrepancy between 
the education offered in Virginia and that offered in the North 
or West. For example, in Virginia the average school term of 
seven and one-half months and the eleven-grade course gives 
an average total educational offering of sixty-eight school 
months (1,360 school days). This may be contrasted with a 
Northern Atlantic States average school term of nine months 
and a twelve grade school course, with a total educational offer- 
ing of 108 school months (2,160 school days), or with a total 
educational offering of ninety-nine school months (1,980 school 
days) provided in most cities of Virginia with a nine months 
term and an eleven-grade course. 

The evils of the short school term and the gross inequalities 
of educational opportunity caused thereby have not gone with- 



The School Term 65 

out recognition by the educational leaders of Virginia. During 
the past fifteen years determined and partially successful efforts 
have been made to lengthen the term, with the result that the 
State- wide average has been raised from six months in 1900 to 
nearly seven and one-half months in 1918. 

At the last (1918) session of the General Assembly a special 
appropiation of $680,000 was made with the stipulation, among 
others, that it should not be apportioned to any county or city 
unless the schools were conducted for a term of not less than 
seven months, or for a period at least twenty days (one school 
month) longer than the term for the previous session, or for a 
period satisfactory to the State Board of Education. That 
law would undoubtedly have improved conditions materially, 
if it had not been for the epidemic of influenza. 

Many improvements in educational conditions can be brought 
about only gradually as the quality of teaching is improved, 
complex forms of administration organized, or new methods 
developed. Lengthening the school term does not belong to 
that class of improvements. The sole element involved is the 
increased pay for teaching for a longer period. It is just as easy 
to take that step at once as by gradual stages. It is inevitable 
sooner or later and delay can only mean the continued loss of 
educational opportunity for the children of Virginia. 

One point only needs further emphasis. Increasing the aver- 
age length of the school term for the State or for any county or 
district does not in the least benefit the children whose misfor- 
tune it is to attend a school whose term remains short. The 
practice of lengthening the terms of town schools at the expense 
of outlying schools of the same district is thoroughly vicious. 
Such practice is not uncommon in Virginia. Equally vicious 
is the practice, obtaining in some schools, of having a nine- 
months term for the high-school grades while elementary grades 
of the same schools are provided a term shorter by a month or 
more. Nothing short of a universal nine-month term for all 
schools and all grades should be permitted. 

RECOMMENDATION 

That a nine-months term be adopted as the minimum stand- 
ard for all public schools and that provision be made for the 
attainment of that minimum standard through the methods 
adopted for the apportionment of State funds. (Chapter XXI). 



CHAPTER III 

SCHOOL POPULATION, ENROLMENT AND 
ATTENDANCE 

IT has been shown in the preceding chapter that the amount of 
education provided for children in Virginia is, for the State 
as a whole, seriously limited. The next problem is: How many 
and what proportion of children of school age receive the benefits 
of the education which is provided? Here we may consider four 
topics: (i) the school population; (ii) the school enrolment; 
(iii) school attendance; (iv) compulsory attendance. 

1. — SCHOOL POPULATION AND THE SCHOOL CENSUS 

In its most general sense school population means the number 
of children of those ages at which children should be in school, 
with or without legal provision. Legally and technically it 
means the number of children whose ages fall within the limits 
which the law sets to determine the classes of persons to whom 
the public schools are legally open. 

All but four states in the country set some legal limits to the 
ages of children to whom the schools are open. The lower age 
limit is set at four in three states, at five in thirteen states, at 
six in twenty-five states, and at seven in three states (including 
Virginia). The upper age limit is set at 16 in five states, at 17 in 
one state, at 18 in seven states, at 20 in seven states, and at 21 
in twenty-four states. The standard employed by the United 
States Bureau of Education is 5 to 18 years inclusive. 

Virginia is the only state in the country basing the school 
census and estimating the school population on the number of 
children of ages seven to twenty (seven to nineteen inclusive). 
For practical school purposes in Virginia or elsewhere such 
figures are of little value except in the most general way. As a 
matter of fact in the schools of Virginia at present there are 
more children five years of age than of ages eighteen and nine- 
teen taken together, and there are more than twice as many 
pupils six years of age than of all ages above sixteen combined. 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 67 

By an act of 1914 the public schools of the State are "free to 
any child six years of age, provided that in the opinion of the 
teacher and the division superintendent the said child shall 
have reached such a stage of maturity as to render it advisable 
to permit him to enter school." In eighteen counties, intensively 
investigated, the number of six-year-old white pupils was 
seventy per cent as large as the number of pupils seven years 
of age, and the number of pupils under seven years of age 
(five and six combined) was nearly eighty-five per cent as 
large as the number of seven-year-old pupils. In the cities of the 
State the corresponding figures were seventy-eight per cent 
and one hundred twelve per cent. Since the number of seven- 
year-old pupils in school includes many who entered at the age 
of five or six, the figures at our disposal warrant the assumption 
that approximately as many children enter school at the age of 
six, or even younger, as enter at the age of seven. In the cities 
of Virginia there are actually nearly one-third more white 
children six years of age than seven years of age in the first 
grade and one-third as many children five years of age. Six- 
year-old children should certainly be included in the State 
school census, and probably five-year-old children should also 
be included, if for no other reason, because an enumeration 
of children five years old would permit intelligent estimates of 
children who should enter school within a year. 

On the other hand, the inclusion of nineteen-year-old persons 
in the school census is practically useless and has little reference 
to the actual school situation, except for a totally indefensible 
practice of apportioning funds on the basis of school popula- 
tion. 1 Of nearly fifty thousand white children enrolled in the 
schools of eighteen counties only 235 (less than one-half of one 
per cent of the total enrolment) were nineteen years of age. 
Of nearly sixty-five thousand white children enrolled in city 
schools only 142 (about one-fifth of one per cent of the total 
enrolment) were nineteen years of age. For all practical 

1 At present the State Constitution provides that State school funds 
shall be "apportioned on the basis of population; the number of chil- 
dren between the ages of seven and twenty years in each school district 
to be the basis of such apportionment." Unquestionably that section 
(135) of the Constitution should be amended at the earliest oppor- 
tunity. 



68 The Public Schools of Virginia 

purposes it would be far better to interpret "school age" and 
estimate the school population on the basis of ages five to 
eighteen inclusive, in accordance with the standard of the 
Federal Bureau of Education, and more nearly in accordance 
with the actual school situation 

Section 653 of the Revised Code provides for a census every 
five years of all persons between the ages of seven and twenty 
years residing within each school disrict, that census to be taken 
by the district clerk, who receives compensation at the rate of three 
dollars per hundred of the children listed by him. The relation 
of that census to the apportionment of funds is considered in a 
later chapter of this report. 1 Here it is pertinent only to note 
certain other matters relating to the school census: (a) As 
suggested above, the enumeration of children of ages seven to 
nineteen inclusive has little relation to the facts or problems of 
school enrolment and attendance. The census provisions 
should be changed so as to enumerate children of ages five to 
eighteen inclusive, the latter age being set because children 
normally complete the high-school work at that age. (b) To be 
of real value the school census should be made cumulative and 
continuous through annual or, at least, biennial correction. 
Important changes may take place in the school population of 
some communities within a five-year period set at present; 
e. g., during the past two or three years in Norfolk, Portsmouth 
Newport News, Hopewell, and Petersburg, (c) The school 
census should be made to include much more than an enumera- 
tion of children of different ages and the number of illiterates; 
e. g., it should include statistics concerning the amount of 
schooling received, distance from the nearest school, etc. (d) To 
be of greatest value, the school census should be so conducted 
as to enable school officers to carry over directly into the school 
field the valuable information gained. In the absence of a 
State census bureau, the school census should be under the 
direction of the division superintendent, (e) There is reason 
to believe that the present system in some districts is conducted 
in a more or less perfunctory and infficient fashion, invites the 
conscious or unconscious padding of returns, and produces statis- 
tics which are of somewhat doubtful reliability. 

> (C/. Chapter XXI.) 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 69 

ii. — SCHOOL ENROLMENT IN VIRGINIA 

In view of the discrepancy between the age groups enu- 
merated in the state school census and the actual ages of 
enrolment, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine accu- 
rately what proportions of children of "school age" are enrolled 
in the schools of Virginia. This difficulty is increased by the 
fact that the basis of the school census was changed by the 
adoption of the new State Constitution in 1902 from persons of 
ages five to twenty inclusive to persons of ages seven to nineteen 
inclusive, so that any attempt to trace the development of 
enrolments in relation to school population is still more compli- 
cated. 

In 1910 (according to the Federal Census) Virginia occupied 
a position in the lowest sixth of the states with respect to the 
proportion of children in school, her rank for the per cent of 
children six to twenty years of age in school being forty-third, 
for children ten to fourteen years of age in school being fortieth, 
and for children six to nine years of age in school being forty- 
fifth. For the per cent of children fifteen to twenty years of 
age in school her rank among the states was twenty-fourth. 
Figures from the Federal Census concerning enrolment in 
Virginia in 1910 are presented in Table 9. 

Improvement after 1910 has been noticeable, but the situation 
is still far from satisfactory, according to the latest comparative 
statistics published by the Federal Bureau of Education, as 
shown in Table 10. From those figures it appears that in 1915- 
16 Virginia occupied the thirty-fourth place among forty-eight 
states with respect to the per cent of children five to eighteen 
years of age enrolled in school, having a lower rate of enrolment 
than any Southern state except Alabama and Lousisiana in 
1915-16. Finally a late bulletin issued by the Bureau of 
Education indicates that among forty-four states considered 
Virginia occupied the thirty-eighth place with respect to the per 
cent of children five to eighteen years of age in schools. 1 

In Tables 11 — 12 are presented figures indicating the relation 
of school enrolments to the total population (more reliable 
figures) and to the school population (less reliable figures for 

» Bulletin 1919, No. 4, p. 25. 



70 The Public Schools of Virginia 

children of ages seven to nineteen inclusive) at different periods 
from 1890 to 1918. From those figures ( based on statistics 
of the State Department of Education) it appears that for white 
children the ratio of school enrolment to the school population 
and to the total population declined from 1890 to 1910, rising 
by 1915 or 1918 to a point noticeably above the record for 1890. 
The ratio of white enrolment to the total white population in 
1890 was 21.6 per cent, in 1910 was 20.3 per cent, in 1915 was 
23.1 per cent, and in 1918 was 22.6 per cent — a noticeable 
improvement from 1910 to 1915. Corresponding ratios of 
white enrolment to white school population were 75.3 per cent 
in 1890, 70.9 per cent in 1910, 78.8 per cent in 1915, and 75.3 
per cent in 1918. For colored children the ratio of school 
enrolment to the total population declined from 19.3 per cent 
in 1890 to 17.8 per cent in 1910, and by 1915 or 1918 had barely 
recovered its 1890 status. Similarly the ratio of colored school 
enrolment to colored school population declined from 59.2 per 
cent in 1890 to 54.5 per cent in 1910, and by 1915 or 1918 had 
scarcely recovered its 1890 status. 

The improvement since 1910 is noteworthy and commend- 
able. Virginia in the past decade has been moving in the right 
direction. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that children 
are not brought into the schools and retained there in satis- 
factory fashion. That cities of the State show a fairly satis- 
factory record under conditions none too favorable — the 
absence of really compulsory education. For the State as a 
whole, however, enrolment in the public schools will never be 
satisfactory until some effective form of compulsory attendance 
shall bring children into school at the proper age and retain them 
there for a period of time more nearly meeting the demands of an 
adequate education. 

iii. — SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN VIRGINIA 

The potential amount of education available for children is 
determined in large part by the length of the school course and 
by the length of the school term. The actual amount of educa- 
tion received by children is conditioned by the proportion of 
children enrolled and also by the regularity or irregularity of 
their attendance. On the one hand, the shortness of a school 




All Dressed Up and Nowhere to Go"— Nearest school 8 mile?. Appomattox County. 




Richmond-Washington Highway. Stafford County. 




Agricultural High School— School Wagon. Appomattox County. 
SOME FACTORS IN SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 71 

course and of school terms may be offset to some extent if 
attendance is regular. On the other hand, a school course of 
adequate length and long school terms, even with high rate of 
enrolment, may be offset by irregularity of attendance. We 
may consider here the character of attendance in Virginia. 

In Table 12 are presented figures showing the average daily 
attendance for various periods from 1890 to 1918 and the 
relation which the average daily attendance bears to the school 
enrolment at different dates. From those figures it appears 
that the ratio of daily attendance to school enrolment for 
whites has increased from 59.0 per cent in 1890 to 62.4 per 
cent in 1910 and to about 67 or 68 per cent at present. Like- 
wise it appears that for negroes that ratio has increased from 
56.0 per cent in 1890 to 61.1 per cent in 1910 and to about 
63.0 per cent at present. 

Notably significant is the fact that at the present time for every 
day in the school year approximately one-third of the children 
enrolled in the schools of Virginia are absent. It follows that, 
on the average, children actually enrolled lose approximately 
one-third of the education provided. Virginia's record in this 
respect is somewhat above the record for the South Atlantic 
States but far below the record for the United States as a whole. 
Thus it appears from the figures presented in Table 10 (and the 
source from which they were taken) that in 1915-16 the number 
of pupils attending daily for each one hundred children enrolled 
in Virginia was 69.8, as compared with 69.4 in the South 
Atlantic States, 66.6 in the South Centeral States, 80.7 in the 
North Atlantic States, 80.4 in the North Centeral States, 76.2 
in the Western States, and 75.5 in the United States, Virginia 
occupying the thirty-fourth position among the states of the 
country in this respect. It also appears that the average number 
of days attendance for each child of ages five to eighteen was 
in Virginia 71.9, in the South Atlantic States 71.6, in the South 
Centeral States 67.4, in the North Atlantic States 105.5, in the 
North Central States 104. 1 , in the Western States 107.7. and in the 
United States 91.7, Virginia's rank among the forty-eight 
states being fortieth. Fianlly, it appears that the average 
number of days attended by each pupil enrolled was 98.4 in 
Virginia, 93.8 in the South Atlantic States, in the South Central 



72 The Public Schools of Virginia 

States 90.0, in the North Atlantic States 146.6, in the North 
Central States 134.4, in the Western States 127.8, and 120.9 in 
the United States, Virginia's rank among the forty-eight states 
in this respect being thirty-fifth. 

Naturally in some parts of the States attendance is much 
better, in others much worse, than the average for the state as a 
whole would indicate. In the cities the attendance is much bet- 
ter than in the rural districts. In Table 13 are presented figures 
showing the situation in the non-city schools of Virginia. 
There very great variability is noticeable. In eight counties 
of the State the county-wide averages for the attendance of 
white pupils enrolled are between fifty-one and fifty-five per 
cent, which means that in those counties on the average nearly 
one-half of the available schooling is lost through poor attend- 
ance by white children actually enrolled. Likewise in sixteen 
counties colored pupils through poor attendance lose more than 
one-half of the meagre schooling available, and in nearly one- 
third of the counties of the State colored children through poor 
attendance lose approximately one-half or more of the schooling 
provided. 
For individual schools in some cases conditions are still worse. 
In Table 14 are presented figures showing the per cents of 
attendance in 1917-18 for 624 white rural schools and 218 
negro rural schools particularly investigated. Those figures 
show that more than one-fifth of the white schools and more 
than one-quarter of the colored schools in rural communities 
have a record for attendance of fifty per cent or less of the 
enrolment. The fact that many other schools have relatively 
high rate of attendance does not in the least benefit children in 
the poorer schools, however much it may help to give a bet- 
ter average record. 

Summarizing our consideration of attendance we may say 
that it is unsatisfactory for the State as a whole, that the 
county-wide average in some counties makes effective educa- 
tion absolutely impossible, and that in some communities the 
schools might just about as well be closed as attempt to provide 
education under the conditions of attendance. Visits to over a 
thousand schools in various parts of the State have made it 
clear to the Survey Staff that the figures given do not belie the 
facts of the case. 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 73 

Figure 2 

Showing proportions of non-city schools with various percentages 
of attendance in 1917-18 

See Table U 
White non-city schools 




Colored non-city schools 




\26f, 





r-.-rr 


=* l ?°= 


Ptf 



Schools having an attendance rate of less than 40 per cant. 
Schools having an attendance rate of 41 to 50 per cent. 
Schools having an attendence rate of 51 to 60 per cent. 
Schools having an attendance rate of 61 to 70 per cent. 
Schools having an attendance rate of 71 to 80 per cent. 
Schools having an attendance rate of over 80 per cent. 



In this connection it is to be noted that the damage done to 
education by irregular attendance is not to be measured merely 
by the time lost through absence. Irregular attendance not only 
causes the loss of the time of absence but disorganizes the work 
of the entire school to an extent seldom if ever realized by one 
not well acquainted with school work. An immediate effect is 
that well-organized instruction is impossible when any large 
proportion of a class is irregular in attendance. An ultimate 
result is for the individual an education shortened by poor 
attendance and for the school a congestion of pupils in any one 
class, heterogeneous in maturity to an extent which renders 
instruction extremely difficult if not impossible. It is readily 
recognized that irregular attendance is the most frequent and 
potent cause of retardation. 



74 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The only successful remedy for poor and irregular attendance 
in other states has proven to be an effective compulsory attend- 
ance law. This must be provided in Virginia. 

iv. — COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE 

Every State in the country has found it necessary to make 
some kind of provision for the compulsory attendance, though 
the age limits vary. 

The lower age limit is set at seven in twenty States, at eight 
in twenty-seven States, and at nine in one State. 

The upper limit is set at twelve in three States, at fourteen in 
nineteen States, at fifteen in fourteen States, at sixteen in eleven 
States, and at eighteen in one State. 

The number of years covered is four in two States, five in 
one State, six in ten States, seven in fifteen States, eight in 
fifteen States, nine in four States, and ten in one State. 

The amount of attendance required by law in a school term 
is a ''full school year" in thirty States, six months or more in 
four States, four months or more in ten States, less than four 
months in four States. 

What is the situation in Virginia? 

The State Constitution (Section 138) provides that "The 
General Assembly may, in its discretion, provide for the com- 
pulsory education of children between the ages of eight and 
twelve years, except such as are weak in body or mind, or can 
read and write, or are attending private schools, or are excused 
for cause by the district school trustees." 

In 1908 the General Assembly passed a law providing for 
the compulsory attendance of pupils between the ages of eight 
and twelve years except under certain conditions "provided, 
however, that the provisions of this act shall not apply in any 
county, city, or town of this Commonwealth except and until 
the qualified voters of such county or city or town shall, as 
hereinafter provided, avail themselves of the provisions hereof." 
In other words the law provided for local option in the matter 
of compulsory attendance for children of ages eight to twelve. 

This act proving ineffective, the General Assembly passed a 
law in 1918 containing the following provisions: 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 75 

Every parent or guardian or other person having control of any 
child between the ages of eight and twelve is required to send such 
child to a public school for at least sixteen weeks in each school year, 
which attendance shall commence at the beginning of the school term 
and shall be as nearly continuous as possible. A child weak in body or 
mind, or able to read and write, or in attendance upon a private school, 
or living more than two miles from a public school, or more than 
one mile from a wagon route, or who is excused for cause by the 
district board, is exempted from the provisions of the Act. District 
school boards shall, within fifteen days after the schools open, 
ascertain the condition of children between eight and twelve who are 
not attending school, and shall report all violations of this Act to the 
division superintendent who shall at once prosecute each and every 
offense. The superintendent shall make careful investigations of the 
facts in the case of non-attendance, and when no valid reason is found, 
shall give written notice to parent or guardian at the usual place of 
residence, which notice shall require the attendance of the child at 
the school named in the notice within seven days. 

For non-compliance, the superintendent shall make complaint before 
a justice of the peace or police justice of the district or city in which 
said parent or guardian resides, or in the corporation or circuit court 
of the city or county. Non-compliance with the provisions of this Act 
is a misdemeanor and the parent or guardian is liable to a fine not 
exceeding $20 for each offense. It is provided that the clerk in each 
district shall report to the superintendent every offense against the 
Act when a member of the district school board or any citizen of the 
district files with him an affidavit setting forth the offense, and if the 
said clerk neglect so to report within fifteen days after such affidavit is 
filed, he shall be liable to a fine of not less than five nor more than 
ten dollars for each case of neglect. 

Two weeks' attendance at half time or evening schools shall be con- 
sidered the equivalent of one week's attendance at day schools. 

The school board of any city shall have the right to appoint a truant 
or attendance officer to perform the duties required under the Act of 
the clerk of the district board and the division superintendent. 

This law is very defective and, even if well enforced, could 
never materially improve present conditions. Its principal 
defects are considered below. 

(1). Virginia shares with North Carolina the honor (?) of 
having its compulsory attendance law cover the lowest range of 
ages (four years) among the States of the country. The mini- 
mum range should cover a period sufficiently long, at least, to 
equal in years the number of grades provided in the elementary 
school. Virginia cannot afford to provide her children with less 
than a complete elementary-school education. 

(2) . The lower age limit of eight years is found in more than 
half of the States of the country as well as in Virginia. There 
are many reasons, however, why the age of eight should be 



76 The Public Schools of Virginia 

considered too high for the lower limit of compulsory attend- 
ance. Pupils should begin their schooling at the age of six in 
most cases and that is the common entrance age in most of the 
better school systems. By the age of seven certainly all 
children of normal health and mentality should be compelled to 
attend school. The compulsory attendance period should begin 
not later than the age of seven in Virginia. 

(3). Only three States in the country (Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Kentucky) set the upper limit of compulsory 
attendance below the age of fourteen. That age should be the 
minimum upper limit because: (a) a child entering school at 
the age of six or seven and progressing normally will complete 
the elementary-school course at that age; (b) children should 
not leave school until they are prepared to enter on the earning 
of their livelihood and the employment of children under the 
age of fourteen is a form of industrial exploitation not to be 
permitted; (c) the State child labor law forbids the employment 
of children under the age of fourteen in industrial or other 
gainful occupations, and forbids their employment under the 
age of sixteen unless they have received an employment cer- 
tificate. 

(4). For children of ages fourteen or under nothing less than 
regular attendance for the full school year can be considered at 
all satisfactory, due allowance being made, of course, for 
excusable absences due to illness, etc. Neither industrial 
exploitation nor parental exploitation for work on the farm and 
at home should be permitted to rob the child of his legitimate 
education and destroy the work of the schools. No child can 
secure an education by attending school eighty out of three 
hundred and sixty-five days in the year. Nor can any school 
be administered with any degree of effectiveness when the 
attendance of pupils is irregular. 

(5). The exemption of children "able to read and write" 
practically negates the entire force of a compulsory attendance 
law, partly because the requirements of ability to read and 
write represents a degree of educational achievement barely 
above the level of illiteracy, and partly because that provision 
of the law affords a loop-hole through which almost any child 
nine or ten years of age may escape. 



School Population, Enrolment and Attendance 77 

Beyond question one of the greatest educational needs of 
Virginia is a really effective compulsory attendance law. In 
the recommendations made below the reforms needed are 
specified. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That for purposes of the school census school age be 
defined as five to eighteen inclusive, 1 and that school popula- 
tion be estimated on the basis of the number of children of those 
ages. 

2. That the school census be taken annually in cumulative 
and continuous fashion through the office of the division 
superintendent and under his direction. That census should 
provide a card index of every child of school age in the county 
or city in duplicate on a uniform card provided by the State 
Department of Education, one copy of each card to be on file in 
the office of the county or city superintendent, the other on 
file in the school which the child attends. The card should 
contain data including the following : (a) name of child, (b) sex, 
(c) age and date of birth, (d) name of parent or guardian, 
(e) address of parent and child, (f) school attended, (g) reason if 
not attending school, (h) distance from nearest school. Only 
additions and corrections need be made annually. 

3. That the State Constitution be amended by striking out 
the compulsory attendance provision of section 138, and that 
the compulsory attendance law of 1918 be amended: (a) so as to 
provide for the compulsory attendance of children of ages seven 
to fourteen ; (b) so as to provide for the compulsory attendance 
of children of ages fourteen to sixteen unless lawfully employed 
and unless holding employment certificates; (c) so as to provide 
that children of ages fourteen to eighteen be required to attend 
part-time continuation schools wherever and whenever such are 
maintained; (d) so as to provide for compulsory attendance 
throughout the school year; (e) so as to eliminate exemption on 
the basis of ability to read and write; (f) so as to provide that 
exemptions for physical or mental disability shall be granted 

1 In a later chapter of this report it is recommended that the 
constitutional provision for the apportionment of State funds on the 
basis of the number of children of ages seven to nineteen be amended. 
(C/. Chapter XXI.) 



78 The Public Schools of Virginia 

by the county or city school board; (g) so as to provide that 
children in non-public schools shall be compelled to meet the 
same requirements for attendance as children in public schools; 
(h) so as to provide that county school boards shall be empow- 
ered to employ attendance officers (usually employing the part- 
time service of the local constables); (i) so as to require each 
city board to employ at least one attendance officer, whose 
duty it shall be to assist the city superintendent and city 
school board in the enforcement of the compulsory attendance 
law. 



CHAPTER IV 

PROGRESS OF PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS 

[TP to this point we have considered the amount of educa- 
tion available for children in Virginia, the number of chil- 
dren enrolled, and the character of their attendance. We may 
now consider the progress of children in the schools. Here 
several problems deserve attention : (i) Up to what age do pupils 
remain in school? (ii) How many years do they remain? (iii) 
How far do they progress in the school course? (iv) How regu- 
larly do they progress? (v) How are they grouped in different 
parts of the course? 

i. — UP TO WHAT AGE DO PUPILS REMAIN IN SCHOOL? 

It is very difficult to determine the exact proportions of chil- 
dren of various ages attending school at present in Virginia. 
The latest Federal Census gives figures for the situation nearly 
a decade ago which cannot be employed to illustrate the present 
situation. Neither the latest State school census (1915) nor 
the records of the State Department of Education provide 
satisfactory data. 

In Table 15 are presented figures showing relative numbers 
and per cents of pupils of various ages in the schools of eighteen 
counties and all cities of Virginia in 1918-19. Those figures do 
not indicate the exact proportions of children of various ages 
in school, since the common assumption is false that the num- 
ber of children of various school ages in any state, or for that 
matter in the United States, is about the same. Nevertheless, 
it is probable that the figures given in the table show roughly 
approximate proportions and suggest certain general truths 
about the proportions of pupils of different ages in the school. 
Those general facts may safely be summarized as follows: 

(1). The figures indicate that children remain in school 
fairly well up to the age of thirteen, but drop out rapidly after 



80 The Public Schools of Virginia 

that age, the proportion fifteen years of age being about one- 
half as large as the proportion eight, nine, ten, or eleven years 
old. 

(2). In all probability considerably less than one-half of the 
children remain in school up to the age of sixteen. 

(3). There is no very significant difference between the pro- 
portions of white children and the proportions of colored chil- 
dren remaining in school up to various ages until the age of 
fourteen is reached, after which age larger proportions of white 
children remain in school. This fact has bearing on the assumed 
affect of a compulsory-attendance law on the problem of negro 
schools. 

(4). Here in Virginia is observable the fact, almost univer- 
sally true throughout the country, that non-city children tend 
to remain in school to a later age than do city children. The 
important reason for this is, of course, the more numerous and 
stronger influences of industry and trade operating to eliminate 
children from school in the city. 

These same tendencies are observable if we employ another 
method of estimating the ages up to which pupils tend to remain 
in school. From Table 15 it appears that the largest age groups 
in the schools are those of children eight, nine, ten, and eleven 
years of age. By those ages most children are attending school. 
An average of the number of pupils of those ages gives us a 
roughly approximate estimate of the average number of pupils 
belonging to each age group and we may estimate school attend- 
ance for various ages roughly on the basis of the proportions 
each age-group in the school is of that theoretic age group. 
Employing this method we get practically the same suggestions 
as were afforded by the figures in Table 15. Figures are given 
in Table 16. 

ii. — HOW LONG DO PUPILS REMAIN IN SCHOOL? 

Since pupils enter school at various ages it is important to 
know not only up to what age they remain in school, but also 
how many years they tend to remain. In Table 17 are presented 
figures showing the relative numbers and per cents of children 
who have been in school (including the present year) various 



Progress of Pupils 81 

lengths of time in the schools of eighteen counties and all cities 
except Richmond. Those figures can give a rough indication 
only of the proportions of children who remain in school for 
various lengths of time. However, it may be noted that for 
each class of schools the proportion of children who have 
attended school for nine years is less than one-half as large as 
the proportion of children who have attended school one, two, 
three, four, five, or six years, while the proportions of children 
who have attended school for eleven years (the standard time 
time for the completion of the full school course) is much less 
than one-sixth as large as the proportion of those who have 
attended school for one, two, three, four, five, or six years. 

More direct indications of the number of years children tend 
to remain in school in Virginia may be found in the figures pre- 
sented in Table 18 where estimates are made of the per cents 
of pupils who have remained for various lengths of time on the 
basis of the average of the numbers who have attended school 
for one, two, three, and four years. From those figures it 
appears likely that: 

(1). All but a few white pupils remain in school for five 
years and all but a few colored pupils remain for four years. 

(2). After the fifth year of school attendance white pupils 
begin to drop out of school in fairly large numbers until more 
than one-quarter have left school after seven years of attend- 
ance. For colored pupils, dropping out begins sooner and pro- 
ceeds more rapidly, more than one-half remaining not more 
than seven years. 

(3). Approximately one-eighth of the white pupils and one- 
twentieth of the colored pupils remain in school for eleven years 
(not eleven grades) — the assumed regular time period for the 
completion of the eleven-grade school course. 

The importance of the facts disclosed above may be seen 
from the following considerations: (a) It is universally recog- 
nized that after the age of about fourteen is reached numerous 
forces tend more and more strongly to draw children out of the 
school. Hence it is important that children receive as much 
education as possible before they reach the ages when economic 
and social forces exert their strong pressure for elimination. 



82 The Public Schools of Virginia 

This means that children should enter the school at as early 
an age as is consistent with the best interests of the children 
and the proper management of the school system, (b) Closely 
related to this is the fact that until and unless conditions are 
very much changed the schools cannot count on retaining many 
children in attendance for more than eight or nine years at most. 
Hence it is important that they should progress through the 
grades as regularly as is consistent with their own interests and 
the proper work of the school This topic is considered in some 
detail in the following section. In anticipation, however, it 
may be pointed out that the conditions called for are not well 
met when we find pupils aged fourteen, fifteen, or even sixteen, 
scattered all the way from the first grade of the elementary 
school to the last year of the high school, and when we find in 
the fifth grade of county schools, for example, pupils who have 
attended school for varying lengths of time from three years to 
twelve years — the median stay in 1918-19 being more than 
a year above the standard for that grade. 

The situation calls for: (a) the earlier entrance of pupils and 
their regular attendance to be provided for by a compulsory 
attendance law; (b) provision by better grading and better 
instruction for the progress of pupils through the grades. 

iii. — HOW FAR DO PUPILS PROGRESS IN THE SCHOOL COURSE? 

More important than the question of the amount of educa- 
tion which is available and may be secured by children in Vir- 
ginia, and more important than the question of the length of 
time which they spend in school, is the question of the amount 
of education actually secured by them. Two phases of this prob- 
lem (the character of attendance and the length of stay in 
school) have already been considered. It remains to consider 
how far children progress through the school course before they 
leave school. 

In Table 19 are presented figures showing the relative num- 
bers and per cents of pupils enrolled in various grades of the 
schools in eighteen counties and all the cities of Virginia in 
1918-19. From those figures it appears that: 

(1). In the first grade or below are found more than one- 
quarter of all white pupils enrolled in non-city schools, nearly 



Progress of Pupils 83 

one-fifth of all white pupils enrolled in city schools, nearly two- 
fifths of all colored pupils enrolled in non-city schools, and more 
than one-quarter of all colored pupils enrolled in city schools. 

(2). In grades fifth and below are found more than three- 
quarters of all white pupils enrolled in non-city schools, about 
two-thirds of all white pupils enrolled in city schools, all but 
6.7 per cent of all colored pupils enrolled in non-city schools, 
and more than four-fifths of all colored pupils enrolled in city 
schools. Hypothetically a complete and uninterrupted pro- 
gress for each pupil would mean that about forty-five per cent 
should be found in these grades. 

(3). In the elementary school are found more than nine- 
tenths of all white pupils enrolled in non-city schools, all but 
about fifteen per cent of all white pupils enrolled in city schools, 
nearly one hundred per cent of all colored pupils enrolled in 
non-city schools, and all but six per cent of all colored pupils 
enrolled in city schools. Hypothetically a complete and unin- 
terrupted progress for each pupil would mean that about 64 
per cent should be found here. 

(4). In the high schools are found less than eight per cent 
of all white pupils enrolled in non-city schools, less than fifteen 
per cent of all white pupils enrolled in city schools, less than one 
per cent of all colored pupils enrolled in non-city schools, and 
less than six per cent of all colored pupils enrolled in city schools. 
Hypothetically a complete and uninterrupted progress by each 
pupil would mean that about thirty-six per cent of all pupils 
should be found in these grades. 

While the figures presented give a general idea of the grade 
distribution of pupils in school, and suggest the fact that a 
relatively small proportion of the pupils enrolled complete the 
full course, or even the course of the elementary school, they 
do not give us anything like an exact estimate of the propor- 
tions of children entering school who progress through various 
stages of the course. Thus we cannot determine the proportion 
of white children reaching the seventh grade in county schools 
by comparing the seventh-grade enrolment (3,481) with the 
present enrolment in the first grade of those schools (11,457). 
This is because the number at present enrolled does not repre- 



84 The Public Schools of Virginia 

sent the number entering school seven years ago nor even those 
only entering this year, but those pupils entering school this 
year, plus those promoted from "primer" or kindergarten classes 
plus a large number of pupils who were not promoted out of 
the first grade last year and who have remained to increase 
greatly the number of pupils in the first grade this year. Like- 
wise the number of pupils at present enrolled in the seventh 
grade includes not only those who entered school seven years 
ago but some of that number plus many who formerly belonged 
to other groups and have been held back through non-promo- 
tion, have entered from other schools, have been accelerated, 
or in other ways been added to the original group. 

Because of the numerous variable factors involved it is diffi- 
cult to secure accurate figures showing the exact proportions 
of children remaining in school through various grades without 
an almost prohibitive expenditure of time and money. However, 
we may secure an approximate estimate which is sufficiently 
accurate for all practical purposes. Most pupils are in school 
at ages eight, nine, ten, and eleven, and of children in school 
the largest age groups are for those ages. An average of the 
number of pupils of those ages will give us a reasonable esti- 
mate of the average number of pupils entering school each 
year, and the per cent that pupils in each grade are of that 
figure will in general give us a fairly reasonable estimate of the 
proportion reaching that grade of children entering school in 
any one year-group. Such figures are presented in Table 20. 
They suggest that: 

(1). Pupils remain in school for the most part up to the fifth 
grade in white schools and up to the fourth grade in colored 
schools. 

(2). Dropping out begins doubtless in the fourth or fifth 
grades in white schools, but does not become very significant 
until the sixth grade. By the seventh grade nearly one-third of 
the white pupils have left school. 

(3). Colored pupils leave school in large numbers by the 
time the fifth grade is reached and very rapidly after that grade, 
particularly in the county schools. By the seventh grade more 
than four-fifths of colored pupils in non-city schools and more 
than three-fifths of colored pupils in city schools have left school. 



Progress of Pupils 85 

(4) . The proportion of white children in the non-city schools 
who reach the high school is approximately three-fifths as large 
as the proportion of white children in city schools, and the pro- 
portion of white children who complete the entire high school 
course in non-city schools is less than one-half as large as the 
proportion of white children in city schools. This is in part 
due to the teaching and educational organization in the cities, 
but also in part to the lack of provision for secondary schools 
in many rural districts. 

(5). Very few colored children reach the high school grades 
in the non-city schools, while about one-quarter of the colored 
pupils in cities reach at least the first grade of the high school. 
In very few parts of Virginia are high-school facilities provided 
for negroes and even in some cities of the state such facilities 
are entirely lacking. 

(6). For white pupils in cities a relatively large proportion 
of children reaches the high school grades, as compared with 
other parts of the country. In this connection, however, it 
must be remembered that in Virginia and in general through- 
out the South the high school grades are preceded by seven 
regular grades of elementary schooling, as compared with eight 
grades below the high school in other parts of the country. 

iv. — HOW REGULARLY DO PUPILS PROGRESS IN SCHOOL? 

A final problem which must be considered is that which con- 
cerns the amount of education received by pupils who spend 
various amounts of time in attendance. How regularly do 
pupils enrolled in the school progress through the various grades? 
Do pupils reach the different successive grades of the school 
course "on time" as measured by the standards on which the 
course is organized and administered? What proportions of 
pupils reach the various grades at the "normal" age, below 
the "normal" age, and above the "normal" age? What propor- 
tions of pupils reach the various grades after the"normal" stay 
in school for those grades, after more than the "normal" stay, 
after less than the "normal" stay? These are problems consid- 
ered below. 

In Virginia the school course is organized and administered 
theoretically on the assumption that children enter the first 



86 The Public Schools of Virginia 

grade at the age of seven, progressing successively at the age 
of eight into the second grade, at the age of nine into the third 
grade, and so on. Actually, as already pointed out, about as 
many children enter school at the age of six, or even younger, 
as at the age of seven, and as a matter of fact there is nothing 
standard or regular in the ages at which pupils do enter school, 
many straggling into school at the age of eight, nine, ten, or 
even older. The lack of a real compulsory attendance law works 
a part of its great damage through the lack of uniformity in 
the ages of children entering the first grade, making it neces- 
sary (especially in rural communities, where separate sections 
for children of widely different degrees of maturity are impos- 
sible in the same grade) to organize classes composed of children 
of ages all the way from five to sixteen or even older in the first 
grade. This disparity in degrees of maturity among pupils of 
the same class persists in successive grades, and in many schools 
makes real education totally impossible even with the best of 
teachers. School after school in rural districts visited by mem- 
bers of the survey staff manifested such wide variability in 
maturity among the pupils of any one class that effective instruc- 
tion was out of the question in those schools. 

In Table 21 are presented figures showing the median ages 
of pupils in various grades of the schools of eighteen counties 
and all cities of Virginia in 1918-19. Those figures show the 
following facts. 

(1). In one-room schools for white pupils the median age 
in each grade from the fourth grade on is a year higher than the 
Virginia standard, and two years higher than the national stand- 
ard. In one-room schools for colored pupils the discrepancy 
between the standard age for a grade and the median age 
actually found^for that grade increases from two years in the 
second grade, according to the Virginia standard, and three 
years, according to the national standard, up to two and one- 
half years, according to the Virginia standard, and three and 
one-half years, according to the national standard in the sixth 
grade. 

(2). In non-city schools of all types for white pupils the 
median age in the third grade is a half year above the Virginia 
standard and a year and one-half above the national standard. 



Progress of Pupils 87 

The difference increases to a year, according to the Virginia 
standard, and two years, according to the national standard in 
the seventh grade. In schools of this class for colored children the 
median age in each grade is approximately two years above 
the Virginia standard and three years above the national stand- 
ard in every grade of the elementary school. 

(3). In city schools for white pupils the median age for each 
grade from the fourth to the seventh is approximately half way 
between the Virginia standard and the national standard, 
though the median age in the first and second grades is approx- 
imately the same as the national standard, and one year below 
the Virginia standard. In negro schools in the cities the median 
age in each grade of the elementary school above the first grade 
is approximately one-half year above the Virginia standard, 
and a year and one-half above the national standard. 

It is to be remembered in this connection that in the first 
grades of city schools two-thirds as many more children are 
six years of age or younger as are seven years of age, or, in other 
words, that in the cities of Virginia the entrance standard of 
six years (national standard) more nearly fits the case than an 
entrance standard of seven years (general Virginia standard). 

(4). Pupils enter the high schools of Virginia at about the 
same median age as pupils in other parts of the country, in 
cities of over ten thousand population possibly at a slightly, 
though not appreciably, lower age. In other words, for the 
state as a whole, it takes such pupils as persist in school as 
long, on the average, to complete the seven grades of educa- 
tion provided in Virginia as it takes pupils in the states of the 
North and West to complete the eight grades of education there 
provided. In the judgment of the investigators nothing or 
little is gained in time or education and much is lost through 
congestion in the grades and through poor grading by the 
eleven-grade course of the South as compared with the national 
twelve-grade course. 

The general situation disclosed by the figures presented in 
Table 21 may be supplemented and substantiated by a con- 
sideration of the proportions of children of "normal" age, over- 
age, and under-age for the grades in which they are located. 



88 The Public Schools of Virginia 

By the Virginia standard it is assumed that pupils enter school 
at the age of seven in the first grade, that eight-year-old pupils 
should be in the sceond grade, nine-year-old pupils in the third 
grade, and so on. By the national standard it is assumed that 
children enter school at the age of six, are seven years old in 
the second grade, eight years old in the third grade, and so on. 
The actual conditions in Virginia are somewhere between the 
theoretic Virginia standard and the national standard as far as 
the age of school entrance is concerned. 1 

Pupils are said to be of "normal" age for any grade if they 
are of the theoretic age for that grade, having entered school 
at the standard age and having progressed without being held 
back or put forward. They are said to be over-age if their age 
is above that set by the standard, and they are said to be under- 
age if they are younger than the age prescribed by the standard. 
In Table 22 are presented figures showing the per cents of 
pupils in the schools of eighteen counties and of the cities of 
Virginia who are of "normal" age, over-age, or under-age for 
their respective grades. Because of the varying age standard 
for entering the first grade in Virginia, figures are given both 
according to the Virginia standard (entrance age seven), and 
according to the national standard (entrance age six) . Those 
figures show that: 

(1). In one-room and two-room schools sixty out of every 
hundred white pupils are older than they should be for their 
grades, according to the Virginia standard, and more than 
eighty out of every hundred are older than they should be for 
their grades, according to the national standard. In negro 
schools of the same classes seventy-eight out of every hundred 
are over-age for their grades, according to the Virginia stand- 
ard, and ninety-three out of every hundred, according to the 
national standard. 

(2). In the larger rural schools and schools in towns (not 
cities) conditions are somewhat better, but still very bad, and 
in all county schools combined fifty-seven out of every hundred 
white pupils are over-age, according to the Virginia standard, 
and seventy-nine out of every hundred, according to the 

1 See Note at close of thia chapter. 



Progress of Pupils 



89 



national standard. Corresponding figures for colored pupils 
in such schools are eighty out of every hundred, according to 
the Virginia standard, or ninety-four out of every hundred, 
according to the national standard. 

(3). In cities of under ten thousand population the per cent 
of over-age white pupils is 42.6, according to the Virginia stand- 
ard, and 69.6, according to the national standard. Corre- 
sponding figures for colored pupils in such cities are 62.3 per 
cent, according to the Virginia standard, and 85 per cent, 
according to the national standard. 

(4). In cities of over ten thousand population 28.5 per cent 
of the white pupils are over-age, according to the Virginia stand- 
ard, and 54.2 per cent, according to the national standard. 
Corresponding figures for negro pupils in those cities are 54.9 
per cent and 77.5 per cent. 

Figure 8 

Showing for white pupils the amount of over age in 1918-19. 
See Table 22 





One-room 


All non-city 


All city 




schools 


schools 


schools 




/ 61% >V 


/ 57% ^\ 


£ 31% \ 




/ over age \ 


/ .over age' \ 


^^^over age^^^k 


Virginia's 


1 1 


I — 11 


Ik^l 


Standard 


w 


w 


w 




/ 82% ^V 


/ 79% >w 


f 57% ^\ 




/ over age \ 


/ over age \ 


f over age \ 


National 


1 A 


1 A 11 


^ 


Standard 


^J 


w 


w 



Beyond question there is a tremendous amount of retardation 
in the general sense of over-age in the schools of Virginia, par- 
ticularly in the rural schools. Now over-age may be due to 
one or both of two causes: (a) entry into school later than the 



90 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



"standard" age, or (b) failure to be promoted regularly from 
grade to grade. Likewise under-age may be be due to either 
or both of two causes: (a) entry into school at an age younger 
than the "standard" age, or (b) promotion more rapidly than 
is usual. By far the greater part of the under-age found in the 
Virginia schools is due to early entry rather than to rapid pro- 
gress, especially in non-city schools. 

Figure 4 
Showing for colored pupils the amount of over age in 1918-19 
See Table 22 





One-room 


All non-city 


All city 




schools 


schools 


schools 




/ 78% >^ 


/ 80% >V 


/ 56% ^V 


Virginia's j 


f over age ) 


/ over age \ 


/ over age \ 


Standard 1 


* 








f 93% ^ 


f 94% \ 


f 78% X 


1 


' over age ^ 


/ over age \ 


/ over age \ 


National 


i 


I 1 1 


A 1 


Standard 1 


\i) 


\U 


^SJ 



Over-age in the schools of Virginia is explained in both of 
two ways. Attention has already been drawn to the fact 
that there is no uniformity in the age of entrance. It remains 
to consider the extent to which non-promotion affects the 
amount of over-age manifest in the figures already given. In 
Table 37 are presented figures showing the proportions of 
pupils in the schools of eighteen counties and all of the cities 
of the state (except Richmond) who have been in school for 
the normal number of years to have reached the grades in which 
they were located in 1918-19, who have been in school longer 
than the number of years usually taken to reach the grades in 



Progress of Pupils 91 

which they are located, and who have attended school less years 
than the number regularly expected of children in the grades 
in which they are located. 

From those figures it appears that nearly three-fifths of all 
white pupils in the non-city schools and more than one-third of 
all white pupils in city schools have spent in school one or more 
years more than they should have spent to reach the grades in 
which they are located, while about three-quarters of colored 
pupils in non-city schools and nearly three-fifths of colored 
pupils in city schools have failed to reach the grades which 
their stay in school justified. Hence it is clear that a large part 
of the over-age found in the schools of Virginia is caused by 
the failure of pupils to progress with a fair degree of regularity 
through the schools. It is not to be expected, of course, that 
all pupils should be promoted regularly. In fact such a situa- 
tion would be quite contrary to sound policy, since pupils dif- 
fer markedly in ability and in attendance. Nevertheless, it is 
certain that a reasonable degree of efficiency does not exist 
where nearly sixty per cent of the pupils enrolled have spent 
one or more years in school over and above the time normally 
set as the standard for various grades. This is the situation 
found in the county schools for whites in Virginia. For negro 
schools of the same classes, the situation is almost unbelieve- 
able — seventy-five out of every hundred pupils having spent 
one or more years in school in excess of the amount normally 
expected for their grades, and more than forty out of each hun- 
dred having spent in school an excess of two or more years. 
Conditions in the non-city schools need not be compared with 
any abstract standard to illustrate the unsatisfactory conditions 
found. Comparison with conditions in the city schools of Vir- 
ginia is sufficient to point the moral of the tale, though even in 
the cities conditions are far from perfect. 

V. — HOW ARE PUPILS GROUPED IN THE SCHOOL COURSE? 

Effective education is vitally dependent on the grouping of 
children in grades so that pupils of approximately like degrees 
of maturity, and training may be taught in groups. Whenever 
pupils of widely different degrees of maturity or training are 
grouped in the same classes effective education is seriously 
handicapped. 



92 The Public Schools of Virginia 

What is the situation in Virginia? In previous sections of 
this chapter it was shown that wide variation in the age of 
entrance, together with a high degree of retardation, results 
in widely heterogeneous groups of pupils in different grades of 
the school. A complete view of the situation is found in 
Tables 23 to 32, which show the age-grade distributions and 
the grade-stay distributions of pupils in schools of different 
classes, in Table 33 which shows for each age-group in the 
schools the per cent of pupils of the standard age in the stand- 
ard grade, in Table 34 which shows for each grade the per 
cent of pupils in that grade who are of standard age, in Table 
35 which shows per cents of pupils in each grade who have 
attended school for the standard length of time for that grade, 
and in Table 36 which shows the per cents of pupils at stand- 
ard grade for their length of stay in school. From those tables 
the following facts may be learned: 

(1). In non-city white schools pupils fourteen, fifteen, or 
sixteen years of age are scattered all the way from the "primer" 
(sub-first) grade through the last grade of the high school. In 
colored schools of the same classes the situation is much the 
same — it could not be much worse — except that the number 
of colored high-school pupils in non-city schools is too small 
to figure. 

(2). In city white schools the situation is better, though 
here again we find pupils twelve, thirteen, or fourteen scattered 
all the way from the lower grades of the elementary school to 
the upper grades of the high school. In city schools for colored 
children the situation is noticeably worse. 

(3). In non-city schools for white children the ages of chil- 
dren in each grade of the elementary school cover a range of at 
least twelve years and great disparity in age among children 
of the same grade is very much the rule rather than the excep- 
tion. In schools of the same classes for colored children the 
situation is worse, there being, in the second grade, for example, 
nearly twice as many children twelve years of age or older than 
eight (standard age for that grade) and younger. 

(4). In city schools for white pupils the ages of children in 
each grade of the elementary school cover a range of ten or 



Progress of Pupils 



93 



eleven years, and again great differences in age among pupils 
of the same grade is the rule. Again also the situation in city 
schools for colored children is worse. 

(5). In non-city schools for white pupils, children who have 
attended school for eight, nine, or ten years are scattered all 
the way from the lower grades of the elementary school to the 
upper grades of the high school. For colored schools of the 
same classes the range is smaller — largely because retardation 
is much greater. 

(6). In city schools for white children the situation is much 
better, though wide variability in grade location is observable 
for children who have attended school for the same period of 
time. These statements are also true of city schools for colored 
children. 

(7). In non-city schools for white children there are found 
in each grade pupils varying widely in the length of time they 
have spent in school, e.g., in the first, second, third, or fourth 
grade pupils are found who have spent more than eight different 
lengths of time in school. The situation is worse in schools of 
the same class for colored children. 

Figure 5 
Showing the amounts of over stay in 1918-19 
See Table 37 





One-room 


All non-city 


All city 




schools 


schools 


schools 




f 62% ^V 


/ 59% >V 


f 35% >V 




' over stay \ 


/ over stay \ 


^^. over stay ^^A 


White Schools 1 




yy 


fy0 




f 77% \ 


f 76% X 


HUP 

/ 58% ^ 


1 


over stay \ 


/ over stay' \ 


' over stay \ 


Colored Schools' 


4) 


(£) 


^) 



94 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(8). In city schools the conditions are much better both 
for white children and for colored children. 

Summarizing the facts regarding the age-grade and the 
grade-stay distribution of pupils in Virginia, we may say that 
in the cities the distribution of white children is probably neither 
better nor worse than is commonly found throughout the coun- 
try, but that in the counties the situation on the whole can be 
described as little less than chaotic — a judgment which has 
been arrived at not only from the figures presented, but also 
through school visits by members of the Survey Staff. 

It is true, of course, that the extremes found in a considera- 
tion of the aggregate figures for a number of counties and for 
thousands of schools do not give a true picture of the situation 
in each county or in each school. Nevertheless, the situation 
is bad — very bad — for the non-city schools as a whole, and for 
the state as a whole, in so far as the situation in the State can 
be judged from the situation in eighteen or twenty representa- 
tive counties. 

The situation described is the result of many factors at work, 
especially: (a) entry in school at different ages, (b) irregular 
attendance, (c) lack of knowledge of the principles of grade 
classification on the part of teachers, (d) poorly trained teachers, 
(e) the lack of adequate supervision. Correspondingly the 
proper remedies are: (a-b) provision for entrance into school 
at the proper age and for better attendance through a compul- 
sory attendance law, (c) more attention to proper grading and 
promotion, (d) better trained teachers, (e) provision for better 
supervision. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The considerations adduced in this chapter support the fol- 
lowing mentioned recommendations which are presented in 
more specific and detailed form in other chapters of this report. 

1. That provision be made for the earlier entry of children 
into school. (See Chapters II and III). 

2. That provision be made for better attendance. (See 
Chapter III). 



Progress of Pupils 95 

3. That provision be made for better trained teachers. (See 
Chapters VII— IX). 

4. That provision be made for better supervision. (See 
Chapter XIV). 

5. That school consolidation be greatly extended. (See 
Chapter XV). 

6. That better provision be made for the classification of 
children in grades with more definite standards for the time 
allotments of studies in each grade. (See Chapter V). 

7. That the reorganization recommended in Chapter XVI 
be adopted. 



Note — In this chapter normal age, over age, and under age have been 
calculated on the basis of a "one-year span," i. e., on the assumption 
that a single year-age should be considered standard for any one school 
grade — for example, that pupils in the first elementary grade should be 
seven years old (Virginia standard), in the second grade they should 
be eight years old, and so on. There is some reason for the "two-year 
span" sometimes employed, i. e., for assuming that normal age may 
properly include ages seven and eight (Virginia standard) for pupils 
in the first grade, ages eight and nine (Virginia standard) for pupils in 
the second grade, and so on. The reason for this is that children 
reach the age of seven at different times during the year and may 
enter school when barely seven years of age or when nearly eight years 
old. As a result, some children, e. g., those whose seventh birthdays 
fall in August, September, or October may enter school at once, while 
others whose seventh birthdays fall in December, January, or later, 
defer their entry into school until the following September. Thus it 
happens that when an age census is taken registration ages may be 
quite misleading. 

For comparative purposes Table 22-B presents figures showing the 
proportions of pupils of normal age, over age, and under age according 
to the "two-year span." 



CHAPTER V 
THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PROGRAM 

WAVING discussed the extent and amount of education pro- 
vided for and received by the children of Virginia, we may 
begin a consideration of the character of that education, dealing 
first with the character of the educational program offered. 
In this chapter is discussed the program of education provided 
in the elementary school. In succeeding chapters will be dis- 
cussed the character of the program of education provided in 
the secondary school. 

i. — LEGAL REQUIREMENTS AND THE STATE COURSE OF STUDY 

By section 702 of the Revised Code the following subjects 
are required to be taught in every free public school of Virginia: 
orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, 
physiology and hygiene, civil government, drawing, history 
of the United States and history of Virginia, the "prevention 
of accidents," and "moral education to be extended through- 
out the entire course." 

The State Course of Study for Elementary Schools adds 
certain studies, and sets a standard for the schools of the State 
involving the following program: 

Reading Grades 1-7 Music Grades 1-7 

Spelling Grades 1-7 Hygiene, etc Grades 1-7 

Writing Grades 1-7 Constructive Work.. Grades 1-4 

Arithmetic Grades 1-7 Manual Training Grades 5-7 

Language Grades 1-5 Sewing Grades 5-7 

Grammar Grades 5-7 Cooking Grades 6-7 

Geography Grades 4-7 Gardening Grades 5-7 

History Grades 5-7 Agriculture Grades 5-7 

Drawing Grades 1-7 

This Course of Study is an expression of the best educational 
thinking of the State, having been formulated by committees 
of teachers and superintendents in Virginia. It is a clear, con- 
cise statement of what should be studied in the elementary 



Elementary School Program 97 

schools in their present organization. It includes brief, but, 
on the whole, admirable statements regarding the aims and 
methods of study for each subject in each grade, together with 
a list of the books approved for each subject and grade and a 
list of supplementary books. In general the course is thoroughly 
modern and in harmony with the best practice. It should be 
the controlling guide for teachers and superintendents in all 
but the larger cities, displacing local and county courses at 
variance therewith. At present eleven counties in the State 
report local courses of study in operation. For the most part 
they vary but little from the State course of study. 

ii . THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PROGRAM IN PRACTICE 

According to commonly accepted practice at present the 
course of study set up by the State Board of Education is good. 
What is the actual practice in the elementary schools of the 
State? To what extent are the schools carrying out the State 
Course of Study? 

In attempting to answer this question members of the survey 
staff employed four methods: (1) investigation by actual visits 
to more than eight hundred schools; (2) interpretation of infor- 
mation supplied by the supervisors of the State Department 
of Education; (3) analysis of returns made by the teachers in 
several hundred schools; (4) analysis of the actual weekly 
schedules of recitations in operation. 

Visits to the schools revealed and the information supplied 
by the State supervisors tended to substantiate in general the 
conditions indicated in the discussion which follows, based on 
the analysis of actual programs and schedules. Returns on 
the special form prepared by the Survey Staff were so patently 
unreliable for very many schools that no attempt was made to 
depend on them. 

In the following discussion the figures given and the con- 
clusions drawn are based on the analysis of actual weekly 
schedules of recitations, with comments to some extent made 
on the basis of personal visits to school and the information 
furnished by the State Department's supervisiors. Three 
major problems are dealt with: (1) the studies offered in various 
types of schools; (2) the apportionment of time to pupils in 



98 The Public Schools of Virginia 

different grades; (3) the amount of time devoted to various 
subjects of study. Attention is here confined to non-city schools, 
but of various types and located in all parts of the State. 

(1). Studies Offered: While the cities of the State provide a 
relatively satisfactory program of studies as measured by com- 
mon standards in practice and by the State Course of Study 
for Elementary Schools, the rural schools of Virginia are some- 
what limited in their actual offerings to pupils, one-room schools 
in particular having scarcely a skeleton program. This appears 
clear from the figures presented in Table 38 showing the approxi- 
mate per cents of schools in whose actual schedules no special 
time is set apart for the study of certain subjects set by the State 
Course of Study. 

These figures do not necessarily mean that the pupils to the 
extent indicated by the figures have no contact with the sub- 
jects listed, but that to the extent indicated pupils are "taught" 
certain subjects only in an incidental fashion and without defi- 
nite time assignments. Thus the fact that one-fifth of the one- 
room schools fail to mention writing in the weekly schedule 
does not mean that pupils receive no training in writing, but 
that the training which they receive is in many schools more or 
less incidental and hap-hazard. As a matter of fact in many 
schools of this class pens, ink, and suitable paper are almost 
totally lacking for proper instruction in writing, even if ade- 
quate time provision were made. Thus, too, the fact that music 
does not appear as a definite subject on the majority of sched- 
ules in rural schools does not mean that pupils have no contact 
with music through a limited amount of group singing, but it 
does indicate the fact, substantiated in other ways, that sys- 
tematic training in the elements of music is totally lacking in 
all but the largest schools of the State. Even where music is 
found in the weekly schedule with a definite time assignment 
in the program, the time allotment is commonly very inadequate. 

As indicated by the figures given in Table 38 and as appeared 
clearly to members of the Survey Staff in their visits, pupils in 
the one-room rural schools have an impoverished course of 
study, being shut out from contact with all but the skeleton 
subjects of an education in all but rare cases. This is partly 
due to the inherent difficulties of providing adequate education 



Elementary School Program 99 

in small schools where all instruction must be furnished by one 
teacher. It is also due in part, however, to the lack of properly- 
trained teachers and to the lack of proper supervision in those 
schools. 

The figures given in Table 38 also show that as larger schools 
are considered and as the schools become better graded, the 
education of the pupils is enriched. Hygiene, for instance, is 
taught with sepecific time assignment in nearly all two-room 
and three-room schools, and in all schools more highly organ- 
ized that subject appears in one or more grades. Nevertheless, 
it is true that the complete State Course of Study is effective 
in very few rural or semi-rural schools, the subjects most neg- 
lected being music, drawing, nature study, agriculture, sewing, 
cooking, and manual training, the last three subjects being far 
more effectively taught and being far better provided in colored 
rural schools than in white rural schools. 

For 1916-17 the Report of the State Superintendent reports 
only 5,738 non-city children engaged in the study of manual 
training, only 6,774 in music, 13,538 in agriculture, 46,059 in 
drawing, 4,791 in domestic science, and 52 in other industrial 
subjects — those figures covering high-school pupils as well as 
elementary-school pupils. 

{2). Apportionment of Time to Different Groups of Pupils: 
What is the amount of time of direct instruction received by 
pupils in different grades of the elementary schools? The 
answer to this question for the non-city white schools of Vir- 
ginia may be found in the figures presented in Table 39 
showing the recitation time allotment for three representative 
grades in rural elementary schools for white children. From 
those figures the following facts appear: 

(a). In one-room schools children receive little attention 
through direct instruction by the teacher. Whatever educa- 
tion children receive in such schools must be largely self- 
directed. This is particularly true of children in the first grade 
who, on the average, receive less than one hour per day of the 
direct attention of the teacher. In one-half of these schools 
first-grade children receive less than fifty-five minutes of the 
teacher's time. 



100 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(b). As the size of the school increases and as each teacher 
has fewer grades under her charge, the amount of her time 
devoted to children in each grade increases. Even in two- 
room and three-room schools, however, children in the first 
grade are being neglected. 

(c). In non-city schools of all types children in the lower 
grades receive a very inadequate proportion of the teacher's 
attention. Thus in one-room schools pupils in the first grade 
receive less than 58 per cent of the amount of the teacher's 
time received by pupils in the seventh grade. In two-room 
schools the first-grade pupils receive about 75 per cent, in 
three-room and in four-room schools about 63 per cent, and 
in larger schools about 78 per cent, as much time as is given to 
seventh-grade pupils. During a five and one-half hour (330 
minute) school day (exclusive of recesses, etc.), children in the 
first grade, on the average, receive the direct attention of a 
teacher for about one-sixth of the time in one-room schools, 
for nearly one-third of the time in two-room, three-room, or 
four-room schools, and for about one-half of the time in larger 
non-city schools. Thus it is evident that the younger children 
have a much smaller proportion of the teacher's time than do 
the older pupils, a fact which is all the more significant when 
we realize that, the younger children are, the less able they are 
to work independently and to direct their own efforts. There 
is abundant evidence that in the majority of non-city schools, 
and particularly in small schools of the predominating type, 
the interests of the younger children are being sacrificed in 
favor of the older pupils. This is especially true of small but 
over-ambitious schools which attempt to maintain small high- 
school classes to the great detriment of younger and more 
numerous children. 

(d). The figures presented show clearly that there is little 
uniformity among schools with respect to the amounts of time 
which teachers devote to children in any one grade. Thus the 
amount of the teacher's attention devoted to first grade pupils 
in one-room schools ranges all the way from twenty minutes 
per day to one hundred thirty-five minutes per day. Similarly 
large amounts of variability are found in every grade and in 
every type of school. Unquestionably differences must be 



Elementary School Program 101 

found in schools of different types. Unquestionably also minor 
differences are to be expected in different schools of the same 
class because of the varying number of pupils in different grades. 
Such differences' as are found at present, however, cannot be 
justified. They are due in no small degree to poorly-trained 
teachers and to the lack of supervision. 

(3). The Time devoted to Various Studies: Having considered 
the studies actually provided in county schools of various types 
and the apportionment of time to different groups of pupils, we 
may now consider the actual time spent on the different sub- 
jects of the program, limiting ourselves, however, to a discus- 
sion of the time spent in recitation under the direct guidance 
of the teacher. 

In Table 40 are presented figures showing for arithmetic the 
time allotments for class work with the teacher in schools of 
different types and for grades one, five, and seven. From these 
figures and from the more detailed figures which form the basis 
of this table several important facts appear. 

(a). There is great variability to be found even in schools of 
the same class. Figures, for one-room schools in particular, 
show that there is no common standard of thinking among 
teachers as to how much time should be devoted to the study 
of arithmetic. 

(b). There is a much greater degree of difference between 
schools of various types with respect to the amount of time to 
be devoted to arithmetic. 

(c). In nearly two-thirds of the one-room schools less than 
fifteen minutes a day is devoted to recitation work in arithmetic 
in the first grade, and not more than eighteen minutes a day 
in the fifth or seventh grades. On the other hand, fourteen per 
cent of those schools provide from twenty to twenty-five min- 
utes for arithmetic per day in the first grade, ten per cent pro- 
vide thirty minutes or more per day in the fifth grade, and 
fourteen per cent provide thirty minutes or more each day for 
arithmetic in the seventh grade. 

A similar examination of other elementary studies in schools 
of different types shows: (1) that the State course of study, 



102 The Public Schools of Virginia 

itself admirable in most respects, appears not to have had its 
proper influence on the work actually done in a large proportion 
of the non-city schools of the State, (2) actual practice in non- 
city white schools indicates that on the whole teachers and 
supervisors have little conception of desirable allotments of 
time to the various studies. 

Here it may be pointed out that the State course of study 
gives teachers little help in judging the relative amount of 
time that should be devoted to the various studies in different 
grades and in schools of different types. The only "Daily Pro- 
gram" outlined is practicable in the relatively few larger 
schools. 

iii. — TEXT-BOOKS 

The character of the education provided is vitally affected 
and the course of study is vitally conditioned by the character 
of the text-books employed in the teaching of various subjects. 
We may, therefore, consider the matter of textbooks used in 
Virginia, dealing (a) with the list of books selected and approved 
by the State Board of Education, and (b) with the extent to 
which pupils are actually supplied with essential books. 

(a). The State List of Text-books: By section 611 of the 
Revised Code the State Board of Education is charged with the 
responsibility of selecting "text-books and educational appli- 
ances for use in the public schools in the State of Virginia, 
exercising such discretion as it may see fit in the selection of 
books suitable for schools in the cities and counties, respec- 
tively." 

In accordance with that law the Board of Education has 
selected and approved certain text-books which are published 
in a "Revised List of Elementary and High School Text Books 
(1916)." That list is properly divided into "basal" books, used 
regularly as the central basis of work in various studies, and 
"supplementary" books, which are intended to extend instruc- 
tion. The list of basal text-books appears, on the whole, to be 
well selected and to include books of the type necessary for 
effective education. The list of supplementary books is good 
as far as it goes, but does not provide books of certain types, 



Elementary School Program 103 

e.g., (i) there are no "complete" selections of literature, 1 such 
as are now available and should be listed for grades four to 
seven, (ii) there are no standard history stories for children, 
(iii) only one series of geographical readers is listed, though 
there are now many other excellent books of travel, story, 
industry, etc., with which the children of Virginia should sup- 
plement their study of geography. For basal text-books which 
every child in the State must use (with certain local options) 
and which in most cases he must buy, careful restriction under 
a policy of State adoption is justified. For supplementary 
books much more freedom may be allowed the local authori- 
ties for selection. The present supplementary list might well 
be extended considerably. 

(6). Text-book Supply: By an act of the 1916 session of the 
General Assembly, school districts were permitted, in case of 
an affirmative referendum vote, to furnish free of charge to all 
pupils in the public schools all books adopted for use in those 
schools, no pupil to be allowed more than one book of any one 
kind, free, for any one year. It was further provided that books 
for use in the schools should be ordered at least thirty days 
before the opening of schools. 

As yet little advantage has been taken of that law and in 
general throughout the State text-books must be purchased by 
the pupils or their parents. The great difficulty here does not 
lie in the fact that the expense is borne by parents, but in the 
fact that the responsibility is placed on them of seeing that 
their children are properly supplied with text-books and that 
they are supplied promptly when needed. As a result at the 
beginning of the school year many children in rural districts go 
weeks, or even months, without their necessary text-books, 
and others — no small number — are never properly supplied 
with essential books. When to the factor of parental irresponsi- 
bility is added the difficulty of properly administering the sup- 
ply and distribution of text-books in rural districts where 
stores are few and distant, as well as poorly supplied, great 
educational loss is the inevitable result. 

1 By "complete" selections are meant whole pieces of literature, 
such as The Christmas Carol, as contrasted with excerpts and fragments 
commonly found in readers. 



104 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The problem of text-books was examined by members of the 
survey staff on their visits to schools. In addition, and as a 
check on personal observations, a careful analysis was made of 
tabulated returns from over a hundred rural schools for white 
children. From those returns it appears that in rural schools 
hundreds of pupils in the schools investigated — undoubtedly 
thousands in the State — do not have a full equipment of the 
necessary basal text-books. Figures are given below: 

Whole number of schools considered 118 

Number of schools in which some pupils lack the necessary basal 

text-books 74 

Number of pupils in those schools lacking one or more of the 

necessary basal books 1,445 

Number of classes in which work must be retarded because of 

lack of books by some members of the class 422 

Number of schools having no books for drawing (67%) 79 

Number of schools having no music books (98%) 116 

While these figures represent conditions ascertained in only 
118 white rural schools, in the judgment of those who personally 
investigated such schools, they are probably not far from repre- 
senting conditions in rural schools in general. 

In rural and semi-rural schools for white children there are 
practically no supplementary books, exceptions being few and 
far between. This is not the place to discuss the value of sup- 
plementary books in the modern school. It is now recognized 
that to confine pupils to one or two reading books for a whole 
year is to rob them of their opportunity for an education. To 
provide them with one book in geography and one in history, 
which alone they must "learn" for two or three years, is to 
stultify their minds. The list of supplementary books issued 
by the State Board is somewhat limited, but even that limited 
list is little represented in the work of rural schools. Personal 
visits to schools by members of the Survey Staff substantiate 
the story told by the following table analyzing conditions in 
one hundred eighteen white schools scattered throughout the 
State. 

Number of schools considered 118 

Number of schools having no supplementary books (16 have 

dictionaries) 60 

Number of schools having one set of supplementary readers.. 10 

Number of schools having two sets of supplementary readers. 15 

Number of schools having three sets of supplementary readers 15 
Number of schools having four or more sets of supplementary 

readers 14 



Elementary School Program 105 

The poverty of this offering in the rural and semi-rural schools 
for white children in Virginia is all the more significant when it 
is remembered that in rural districts school libraries are seldom 
found and community librc ries do not exist. 

The supply of supplementary text-books must always be a 
matter for the most part depending on the educational interest 
and intelligence of local school authorities. Basal text-books, 
however, constitute the irreducible minimum of educational 
equipment which must be supplied. The conditions found in 
Virginia are conditions sometimes found in almost every State 
in which the responsibility for supplying text-books is thrown 
on the pupils or their parents. The best school systems 
have long since adopted the policy of supplying text-books free 
to the pupils, being moved to that policy not so much by any 
desire to shift the financial responsibility from parents to the 
public as by the necessity of ensuring the necessary text-books 
and supplies in the hands of the pupils. 

Experience in the other States has shown that a permissive 
free text-book law with local option has seldom proved effective 
in those districts where its provisions are most needed. The 
law should be made mandatory and have State-wide applica- 
tion both for basal text-books and for supplementary books 
and supplies. 

iv. — INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPLIES 

As text-books are necessary for instruction which may make 
actual the theoretic education provided in the schools, so cer- 
tain instructional supplies and equipment are necessary for the 
proper training in all subjects and without them some subjects 
simply cannot be taught. Thus handwriting cannot be taught 
unless pens, ink, and suitable paper are available, and unless 
pupils have some place on which to write. Thus drawing is 
impossible without appropriate equipment. Thus manual train- 
ing and sewing or cooking cannot be taught without the funda- 
mental tools and materials. 

What is the situation in Virginia in this respect? In city 
schools and in rural schools of the larger and better type the 
minimum at least of essential supplies and equipment is reason- 
ably well provided. In the majority of rural schools, however, 



106 The Public Schools of Virginia 

there is serious lack of even the minimum of supplies and equip- 
ment, not only for such studies as sewing, manual training, 
cooking, gardening, and the like, but even for such fundamental 
studies as handwriting, drawing, music, geography, and history. 
In other words, in the majority of non-city schools proper 
instruction in subjects set by the State Course of Study in 
Elementary schools is frequently impossible and always limited 
by the lack of educational supplies and equipment necessary 
for adequate instruction. These statements are made on the 
basis of an investigation by personal visits to hundreds of 
schools and are supported by information supplied by the 
supervisors of the State Department and by a test analysis 
of returns from one hundred eighteen rural schools in all parts 
of the State. Consideration of a few important matters will 
make clear the situation. 

It is obvious that proper training in handwriting cannot be 
provided in schools where pens, ink, and suitable paper are 
lacking, or where the pupils have no smooth desk surface on 
which to write. First-hand investigation by members of the 
Survey Staff found this to be the case in hundreds of schools 
visited. In many cases the only ink supply found was a five- 
cent bottle on the teacher's desk, which, if used at all by pupils, 
had to be used in turn. Pens and paper which could receive 
writing in ink were more conspicuous by their absence than by 
their presence. So general was this situation in small rural 
schools that the members of the Survey Staff who gave hand- 
writing tests to about ten thousand rural school pupils were 
obliged to carry with them to the schools full supplies of pens, 
pencils, ink, and paper — and also supplies of paste-board writ- 
ing pads to be used in schools where the desks were so poor that 
they presented no surface on which writing could be done. 
Under such conditions it is not at all strange that those exam- 
iners found many schools in which pupils, even of the upper 
grades, had never received training in the school in writing 
with pen and ink. Neither is it surprising that nearly one- 
half of the schools reporting to the Education Commission 
stated that their supplies of pens and ink were inadequate. 
In this connection it may be added that actual first-hand inves- 
tigation by members of the Survey Staff indicated that five per 



Elementary School Program 



107 



cent of the white schools and forty-five per cent of the colored 
schools visited had desks which should long since have been 
consigned to the wood pile. 

Blackboards are fundamentally important for instruction in 
almost every subject and good blackboards must be considered 
not merely an adjunct to otherwise effective instruction, but 
as absolutely essential. Yet for blackboards in 405 non-city 
white schools and 167 non-city colored schools the scorings 
given by members of the survey staff on personal visits were 
as follows: 

Supply and condition of blackboards in non-city schools 





White 


Colored 


Grading and Character 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


A — Perfectly satisfactory, 


37 
101 

151 

97 
19 


9.1 
24.9 

37.3 

24.0 
4.7 


4 
12 

21 

43 

87 


2.4 


B — Good, but not perfect 


7.2 


C — Fairly satisfactory, but defective some- 


12.6 


D — Unsatisfactory and approaching useless- 


25.8 


E — Wholly useless or entirely lacking 


52.0 



Maps are necessary for instruction in geography and history. 
Charts of various kinds are desirable in the lower grades for 
reading, language work, and music. In some schools such 
equipment is almost totally lacking, in many more schools, it 
is so antiquated as to be useless, and for rural schools as a whole 



Supply of maps, globes, and charts • 


In non 


-city schools 






White 


Colored 


Grading and Character 


No. 


% 


No. 


% 


B — Good, but not sufficient 


19 

47 

110 
106 
125 


4.7 
11.5 

27.0 
26.0 
30.8 



2 

14 

30 

121 


0.0 
1.2 


C — Fairly satisfactory but notably insuf- 
ficient 


8.4 


E — Useless or entirely lacking 


18.0 
72.4 







108 The Public Schools of Virginia 

the supply of maps and charts is quite inadequate even for 
minimum work in fundamental subjects. Personal investiga- 
tion through visits by members of the Survey Staff resulted in 
the following scoring for maps, globes, and charts in 407 non- 
city white schools and 167 non-city colored schools. 

In non-city schools supplies and equipment for work in music, 
sewing, cooking, manual training, and the like subjects, included 
in the State course of Study, are found in very few of the larger 
and better schools. 

The general status of educational apparatus and instruc- 
tional supplies in non-city schools may be judged from the facts 
that in 1916-17 the average annual expenditure per county was 
$65.73 for "maps, globes, and charts," $93.18 for "libraries," 
and $55.14 for "blackboards." For "business, manual training, 
domestic science, and agricultural departments" the average 
expenditure per county was $34.79 — far less than should be 
expected for a single school. 

V. — HOW MAY NECESSARY IMPROVEMENTS BE MADE 

From the foregoing discussion it is evident that in the non- 
city schools of Virginia there is need: (1) of making effective 
the State legal requirements and the standards of the Board 
of Education as set forth in the State Course of Study for Ele- 
mentary Schools ; (2) of securing a better and more standardized 
apportionment of time for the different subjects in each school 
grade; (3) of providing that necessary books and supplies are 
available in all schools. 

How may the State of Virginia set about meeting these 
obvious, fundamental needs? The State Board of Education 
and the State Department of Education already possess the 
legal right to enforce Section 702 of the Revised Code (prescrib- 
ing the subjects to be taught in the schools of the State) and 
to establish the standards set by the Board. Through their 
control of State funds they have the practical power to enforce 
the law and the regulations. An analysis of the problem sug- 
gests that the difficulties to be met and overcome are: (1) an 
inadequate supply of well-trained teachers capable of carrying 
out the program set by the State Board of Education, (2) inade- 
quate supervision (both State and local) to guide teachers, to 



Elementary School Program 109 

stimulate local understanding of school needs, and to enforce 
the State requirements, (3) a lack of understanding by com- 
munities of the serious limitations to education under present 
conditions, (4) certain defects in the administration machinery 
of the State. Following are given some suggestions for meeting 
and overcoming those difficulties. 

(1). Provision for securing a more adequate supply of well- 
trained teachers must be made by (a) paying salaries sufficiently 
high to attract and retain in the service capable men and women, 
(b) raising the certificating standard and extending the influence 
of teacher-training institutions. This whole topic is discussed 
in Chapters VII and IX. 

(2). Provision for more adequate supervision must be made 

(a) by increasing the supervisory force of the State Department, 

(b) by the apportionment of several county supervisors and the 
abandonment of the fallacious assumption that a division super- 
intendent can possibly exercise proper supervisory functions 
over the schools of an entire county or group of counties. This 
whole topic is discussed in detail in Chapter XIV. 

(3). Communities must be brought to realize the serious 
limitations of the education provided. This involves a State- 
directed campaign of education as a first means, and as a second 
means the exertion of financial pressure where it is necessary. 
No school should be entitled to receive any part of State funds 
unless fully complying with the minimum requirements of the 
law and of the Board's regulations as far as subject offerings, 
time allotments, and equipment are satisfactorily met. 

(4). Analysis of the administrative machinery of the State 
suggests several measures for improvement. The most impor- 
tant are the following: 

(a). The Department of Education should issue a carefully 
worked-out schedule showing for the benefit of teachers and 
supervisors the relative emphasis and time to be given to each 
subject in the different grades. It should also prepare type 
programs for schools of different classes, programs that are 
practically workable as well as educationally sound. 



110 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(b). Schedules for each school in a county should receive 
the approval of the division superintendent before the school 
year begins, either directly or through the supervisors working 
under his direction. 

(c). Small schools should be forbidden to attempt high- 
school work which can only result in depriving the younger 
children of their share of the services of the small instructional 
staff. The act passed at the last session of the General Assem- 
bly, which is designed to permit the teaching of high-school 
subjects in two-room, three-room, and four-room schools under 
certain conditions is not to be approved, even when partially 
safeguarded by the provisions that such practice must first 
receive the consent of the State Board of Education. 

(d). The law permitting districts to provide free text-books 
is not likely to prove generally effective in the State. It should 
be amended so as to provide for a mandatory State-wide policy 
of free text-books and essential supplies. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State Department of Education prepare and 
issue a schedule of the minimum amount of recitation time to 
be devoted to each subject in each grade: (a) in one-teacher 
schools; (b) in two-teacher schools; (c) in three-teacher schools; 
(d) in schools having four or more teachers for the elementary 
grades. 

2. That the time schedule of recitations in each school be 
submitted for approval or correction to the division superin- 
tendent before the opening of the school or not later than the 
tenth day after the opening of the school. 

3. That no school be entitled to receive any part of State 
funds unless and until it meets the minimum requirements of 
the State law and the minimum standards of the State Board 
of Education concerning subjects taught and time allotments. 

4. That one-teacher schools be restricted to five grades of 
instruction. (Cf. Chapters XV and XVI.) 



Elementary School Program 111 

5. That provision be made for a more adequate supply of 
well-trained teachers. (Cf. Chapters VII — IX.) 

6. That provision be made for a more adequate system of 
supervision. (Cf. Chapter XIV.) 

7. That the free text-book law be so amended as to make 
it mandatory rather than permissive, State-wide in its appli- 
cation rather than subject to local option, and that it be 
extended to cover all books (supplementary as well as basal) 
and necessary instructional supplies. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE RESULTS OF INSTRUCTION MEASURED' 

IS my boy learning to read? Is he learning to write, to spell, 
to manipulate figures, to express his ideas clearly? Is he 
learning to do these things as well as other children of his age 
in Virginia schools? Does he do as well as the pupils who go 
to school in the best city school system, or only as well as the 
child in the poorest rural Virginia school? These are the ques- 
tions which any intelligent Virginia parent may well ask about 
the schooling of his child. He may further ask if Virginia chil- 
dren are being taught as well as are the children of Illinois, of 
Alabama, of Washington, of North Carolina. As a citizen of 
the state he may ask these questions about other children than 
his own, and as a responsible public official he may demand to 
know in the most accurate possible terms just where the schools 
of Virginia stand in the service they are rendering to the chil- 
dren of the state. 

To find an answer to these and related questions the Division 
of Tests and Measurements was called into existence by the 
Virginia Education Commission. The Division was directed 
to use both educational and psychological tests in the study of 
its problems. The work was begun with an examination of 
grades three to seven in the rural schools of eighteen selected 
counties (Albemarle, Amelia, Appomattox, Caroline, Carroll, 
Charlotte, Giles, Greensville, Henrico, Isle of Wight, Lancaster, 
Loudoun, Northampton, Rockbridge, Rockingham, Smythe, 
Stafford and Wise). Later tests were given in grades one and 
two of the rural schools. The work begun in the rural schools 
was extended to the schools in nine representative cities (Char- 
lottesville, Danville, Lynchburg, Newport News, Norfolk, 
Portsmouth, Richmond and Roanoke) where children of all 



•Only a very brief outline of the work of the Division of Tests and 
Measurements can be presented here. Detailed analysis will be pre- 
sented in a special report to be published later. 



Results of Instruction Measured 



113 



elementary grades were examined. Finally, a study was made 
of certain parts of the first year's work in twenty-five high 
schools of the State. 



THE CHARACTER OF THE TESTS 

For the type of examinations conducted in the Virginia sur- 
vey, it is desirable to use standardized tests. Such tests differ 
from the ordinary examination set by a teacher in several ways. 
Chiefly, they are more carefully prepared and they have been 
given to large numbers of children in widely scattered commu- 
nities so that the examiners already know in definite mathe- 
matical terms how high a score pupils of a particular age or 
grade should make. Standard tests of this type were used for 
measuring the achievements of children in reading, spelling, 
handwriting, English composition, arithmetic and algebra. 
Following is the list of achievement tests upon the results of 
which the conclusions of this chapter are based. 

Table— 41 



Subject 
Reading 

Spelling 

Handwriting 
Arithmetic. . 



English 
Composition 



Name of Test 

Thorndike Reading Scale, Alpha 2 

Virginia Reading Test, Sigma 8 ; 

Virginia General Examination, Exercise 1. 

Ayres' Spelling Scale 

Starcb Scale for measuring handwriting. . . 

Woody Arithmetic Scales, Series B 

Courtis Standard Test, Series B ; 

Virginia General Examination, Exercise 2. 

Nassau County Supplement to the Hillegas 
Scale 

Hotz Series B — Addition and Subtraction, 
Equation and Formula 



Grades in 
Which Used 



Algebra. 



3-7 (or 8) 

1-3 

3-7 (or 8) 

3-7 (or 8) 

3-7 (or 8) 

3-7 (or 8) 

3-7 

3-7 (or 8) 



1st year 
high school 

1st year 
high school 



The psychological tests were designed to secure information 
supplementary to that yielded by the foregoing achievement 
tests and scales. Three separate intelligence examinations 
were used. The first, known as Delta 1, is a modification of 
the army intelligence examinations Alpha and Beta. The 



114 The Public Schools of Virginia 

modifications consist essentially in a selection of those parts 
of the army examinations suitable for the elementary grades 
three to eight and the first year of high school and the addition 
of other similar items. For grades one and two a special exami- 
nation known as Delta 7 was arranged. Both of the foregoing 
examinations were given to the children in groups. For indivi- 
dual examinations an abbreviated form of the Stanford Revision 
of the Binet-Simon tests (Delta 3) was used. Finally, each 
teacher whose pupils were examined filled in a teacher's record 
of pupils (Delta 2) giving the name, age, grade, and years in 
school of each child, together with her personal estimate as to 
his scholarship, industry and general intelligence. Near the 
close of the examination it became possible to co-operate with 
the National Research Council in giving a series of twenty 
tests to pupils who had already been examined by the Com- 
mission's tests. The results of these tests are available to the 
Commission and will be dealt with in the special report on 
tests and measurements. 

SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION 

All of the tests noted in the previous section, except the 
Stanford-Binet tests, were available for group examination, as 
many as twenty-five or even more children being examined at 
one time. It was thus possible to include a large number of 
schools and many different pupils in the survey and to get the 
data from many different localities representing a wide variety 
of school conditions. 

Since it was impossible in the time available to examine any 
large proportion of the schools of the state, special effort was 
made to select for examination those schools which would 
fairly represent the major school conditions in the state, and 
in the schools examined a number of children sufficient to rep- 
resent all were tested. In the beginning, the counties in which 
the examinations were to be given were carefully chosen so as 
to include some in which the very best school work in the state 
is being done, some in which the schools are most in need of 
improvement, and others in which the school work is of inter- 
mediate quality. Similarly, within each school division the 



Results of Instruction Measured 115 

schools to be examined were selected so as to get fair samples 
of all the work in the division. It was desired that the results 
of the test should give a fair picture of all the school work in 
the state — good, poor, and mediocre. That they do give such 
a picture is the judgment of the Survey Staff and it is supported 
by the oral and written judgment of a large number of school 
officers in the state who are familiar with the methods by which 
the examinations were made. 

The scope of the survey may be appreciated by the fact that 
about sixteen thousand different children were examined with 
from six to forty different tests. Of this sixteen thousand chil- 
dren about five thousand were in grades three to seven of rural 
white schools. More than one thousand were in grades one 
and two of these same schools. The additional six thousand 
white children were in grades one to seven (or 8) of urban 
schools and in the first year of twenty-five urban and rural high 
schools. In all about three thousand colored children were 
examined, of whom fifteen hundred were in the rural schools, 
one hundred fifty in the first year of the colored high schools 
of Richmond and Norfolk, and the remainder in the elementary 
grades of city schools. For comparative purposes all of the 
children in the Whittier School at Hampton Institute were 
examined. 

While this total number of children is not a large per cent 
of all the school children in the State it affords a fair sample of 
the entire school population, and, because of the method by 
which they were selected, the results do show in a fair way the 
conditions of school work in the state. 

The testing in grades three to seven of the rural schools was 
done between March 17th and April 20th. The tests in city 
schools were completed for these grades within ten days there- 
after, and the testing of grades one and two came in late May. 
The giving of these tests required the entire time of the staff of 
six persons for two months, and the time of thirty others who 
worked from one to four weeks each under the direction of the 
staff. The latter group of persons were chiefly school superin- 
tendents and principals in Virginia, members of the State 
Department of Education and members of the faculties of the 
normal schools and colleges of the state. 



116 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



THE RESULTS OF THE TESTS 

The results of the tests and measurements will be here pre- 
sented only in so far as they bear upon the most important 
school problems. Because of the limited space in this chapter 
the detailed results, for the most part, will be omitted and the 
general conclusions based on them will be somewhat dogmati- 
cally stated. Abundant evidence for all conclusions, however, 
exists and will be set forth in the special report on tests and 
measurements. 

Any fair interpretation of the gross scores of the tests must 
take into account the conditions prevailing in Virginia schools. 
The first of these is the fact that Virginia attempts to cover 
the elementary course in seven years whereas for most parts of 
the country an eight year elementary course is standard. The 
second modifying condition is the fact that in the non-city 
schools of Virginia the white pupils are from one half to one 
year above the national standard age for each of the elementary 
school grades. Colored children are still older. The details 
for age for the State as a whole have been set forth in Chapter 
IV. Further treatment will be given later in this chapter. 

THE SEVEN-GRADE SCHOOL 

Since the seven-grade system affects the interpretation of all 
the results its consideration may be taken up before the pre- 
sentation of any detailed scores. If we assume that the elemen- 
tary school course is a fairly fixed quantity we may say that 
Virginia attempts to do in seven grades what most schools 
attempt to do in eight. 1 On this assumption one grade of the 
elementary school in Virginia equals one and one-seventh 
grades in the eight-grade system. This may be seen graphi- 
cally in the following figures where the horizontal line represents 
the duration of the elementary school course. 

Table— 42 

Showing the relation of grades in the Virginia system to 
those in the standard system 



Grades 

Beginning of 

Elementary 

School 

Grades 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


End of 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Elementary 
School 



1 The State Course of Study is organized on that basis. 



Results of Instruction Measured 117 

The divisions on the upper side of the line represent the seven 
year course and those on the lower side of the line show the 
eight year course. It will be seen from this figure that a seventh 
grade Virginia score should not merely equal a seventh grade 
score in the eight year system ; it should equal an eighth grade 
score since in both systems the children at the end of the respec- 
tive years are completing their elementary schooling. Similarly, 
a sixth grade Virginia child should fall but little short of a 
seventh grade score of an eight year system, and so on down 
the grades. The table of equivalents is as follows: 

Seven Grade System Eight Grade System 

1 grade equals 1 1-7 grades 

2 grades equal 2 2-7 grades 

3 grades equal 3 3-7 grades 

4 grades equal 4 4-7 grades 

5 grades equal 5 5-7 grades 

6 grades equal 6 6-7 grades 

7 grades equal 8 grades 

RESTATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 

With these preliminaries out of the way the problems raised 
in the first paragraph of this chapter may now be restated. 
Is the product of the public schools of Virginia as good as it 
ought to be? Are the children of Virginia parents getting as 
good an education as they are entitled to receive? In how far 
do the children of Virginia equal, exceed, or fall short of the 
scores made by children in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Iowa 
and other States? Do the Virginia pupils equal the standard 
of achievement set by the authors of the tests as valid for the 
several grades? 

A single answer to these questions is difficult because stand- 
ard scores are not as widely available as helpful comparison 
demands. In particular there are few such scores at hand for 
Southern States where social and economic conditions most 
nearly approximate those of Virginia. Further, there are practi- 
cally no available scores for rural schools of the type examined in 
this survey. It is possible, however, to compare the different 
types of Virginia rural schools with each other and with the 
Virginia city schools, and to compare the city schools of Vir- 
ginia with numerous city schools throughout the country. 



118 The Public Schools of Virginia 

READING 

Keeping all these facts in mind we may now examine the 
results of the Virginia tests. Because it is the most fundamental 
of all subjects we may begin with the subject reading, which 
is not only the most essential tool of educational advancement, 
but is also one of the best indices of a pupil's general educational 
growth. The subject of reading is here used in the somewhat 
restricted sense of the ability to get meaning from printed sym- 
bols through silent perusal of them. The tests were all alike 
in this, that the children were given printed material, asked to 
read it, and then to make certain simple but definite responses 
with the pencil, such as writing words, making marks on pic- 
tures, or underlining words — responses which showed definitely 
if they understood what was read. It is the same kind of ability 
a person must have if he is to read a book, a newspaper, a 
magazine, a railroad ticket, or a sign on the road. 

Careful efforts were made to determine this capacity among 
Virginia children. Three different reading tests were given. 
Approximately twelve thousand children from the third year 
elementary to the first year of high school were tested by the 
Thorndike Reading Scale, Alpha 2. The same number took 
exercise one of the Delta 1 examination, and more than three 
thousand took the test in primary reading. 

The scores for the Thorndike reading scale are given in con- 
densed form in Table 43. 

The heavy line in the body of this table is a repetition of 
that in Table 42 and shows the equation of the seven-grade to 
the eight-grade system. Above this line are the Virginia scores; 
below it are the scores for the eight-grade system. 

The first comment to be made upon the Virginia scores as 
shown in this table is a favorable one. Both in the rural and 
the city schools there is distinct progress from grade to grade. 
In the rural schools it averages .7 of a scale step throughout 
the course. In the city schools the average is .6 of a scale step. 
The rate of progress from grade 3 to grade 7 would therefore 
seem slightly favorable to the country schools. This apparent 
advantage is not real but is due to the fact that the third grade 
rural score is so distinctly below the city score for that grade 
that it offers larger opportunity for improvement. 



Results of Instruction Measured 



119 



Table— 43 

Scores of Virginia pupils (white only) on Thorndike Reading Scale 
Alpha 2 and comparative scores for other schools. The Virginia seven- 
grade system is shown above the heavy line. The comparative scores 
from eight-grade systems are below the heavy line. 



Average score 
Virginia rural . . 






4.1 


4.9 




> 4 




6.2 


6.9 


Virginia city sec- 
ond half year. . . 






4.9 


5.1 


5.6 


7.1 


7 3 










Virginia Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV V 


VI 


VII 


Standard j 
Grades 


II III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Thorndike 
Standard 






4.7 
5.1 


5.2 

5.4 

5.5 
4.8 


5.7 

5.9 

5.7 
5.4 


6.5 

6.8 

6.7 
6.3 


7.0 

7.0 

7.1 
6.5 


7.5 


34 Wisconsin 
cities 






7.3 


St. Paul 
(mid-year) 






7.7 


Patterson 








6.9 

























If we compare the Virginia city scores with the city scores 
outside the state the comparison is favorable in grades three, 
six and seven. The Thorndike standard score for the eighth 
grade is 7.5 and the actual median achievement in this grade 
for 34 Wisconsin cities is 7.3. The median age of the Wisconsin 
pupils is 14 years, which is just the median age of the seventh 
grade Virginia children whose papers were counted and who 
scored a median of 7.3, or exactly the Wisconsin score. Sim- 
ilarly, the median age of Virginia city sixth grade pupils is 
exactly the same (13 years) as the Wisconsin median for the 
seventh grade and the score is essentially the same. From 
these figures we would conclude that Virginia cities do succeed 
in teaching children to read by the time they reach the end of 
the elementary course — succeed as well as does Wisconsin or 
the schools from which the Thorndike Standards were derived. 

In earlier grades, however, and particularly in the fourth 
and fifth grades, the Virginia cities do not appear so favorably. 



120 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The fourth-grade Virginia city score for children, with a median 
age of eleven years, is 5.1. This is the Wisconsin third grade 
score for pupils whose median age is nine years. The Virginia 
fifth grade score for children, with a median age of 12 years, is 
practically the same as the Wisconsin fifth grade score for 
pupils eleven years of age. 

It would seem from these figures that, while the Virginia 
children acquire by the end of their elementary course an ability 
in reading comparable with that of pupils in good schools 
throughout the country, they arrive somewhat slowly, as indi- 
cated by the scores of the earlier grades. 

If we turn to the rural schools the condition is less favorable. 
The scores are in every grade lower than the Thorndike stan- 
dard and lower than the Virginia city scores. The pupils, 
except in the third grade, are also a half year older than the 
city pupils. The median seventh grade rural pupil is 14.6 
years old and scores 6.9 on the Thorndike scale. This is not 
only .4 points or more than half year's progress less than the 
score of the city seventh-grade child of 14 years, but it is less 
than the Wisconsin score for the seventh grade (median age 13). 
It would seem, therefore, that the rural children in Virginia 
are from a year to a year and a half behind where they should 
be under good school conditions. 

This loss of time is not only significant for those pupils who 
remain in school until the end of the course; it is much more 
significant for those who because of retardation leave school 
earlier, with the reading ability of the fifth or sixth grade pupil, 
an achievement much below the needs of real life. 

The foregoing discussion has been concerned with average 
and median scores where large groups of children are taken as a 
unit. Speaking of all of Virginia's rural children or all her 
city children as a unit, however, does manifest injustice to 
certain schools by rating them lower than they deserve and by 
making others appear better than they are. In the city of 
Richmond the seventh grade has a median age of 13.5 years 
and scores 7.5 Thorndike. In Newport News the seventh grade 
median age was 13.5 and the score 7.6. Similarly, the median 
age of fifth grade pupils in Portsmouth is 11 years, and the 
score was 5.8, while the median age of the sixth grade in Nor- 






SOME REASONS FOR POOR HANDWRITING IN THE 
RURAL SCHOOLS OF VIRGINIA 



Results of Instruction Measured 



121 



folk 1 is 11.5 and the median score is 6.9. Further selection 
of classes which score high would be comparatively easy. 

In summary it may be said that the condition of reading in 
Virginia city schools is fairly satisfactory. Such deficiencies 
as do exist will be easily adjusted when once attention is called 
to the situation. In the rural schools, however, there is a 
deficiency that should be met by vigorous remedial measures. 



HANDWRITING 

Tests in handwriting were given to all elementary school 
pupils examined from the third to the seventh grade inclusive. 
The papers of these pupils were evaluated as to quality of per- 
formance according to the Starch scale for the measurement of 
handwriting. The results are shown in Table 44 which gives 
also the Starch standards based on the results of tests in a large 
number of American cities. 

Table U 

Quality of handwriting in the rural and city schools (white) of Virginia 
compared with the Starch Standards 



Virginia rural 
one room 






8.8. 


1 


9.4 


10.0 




9.9 


10.4 


Virginia rural 
four room and 
over 






9.3 
9.5 


9.5 
9.4 


10.0 
10.2 


10.5 
9.8 


11.0 


Virginia city 






11.5 










Virginia Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


Standard 
Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Starch Standards 






9 7 


10-3 


109 


11 4 


12.0 


12.5 



























In quality of handwriting the Virginia scores are uniformly 
low. The seventh grade score for city schools is 11.5. This 
is the highest score made by any group and it corresponds 
approximately to the Starch Standard for the sixth grade. 

1 Norfolk City has an eight-grade elementary school. 



122 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The standard of progress for the Starch scale is about six- 
tenths of a scale step per year. In the third grade the Virginia 
city children are within two-tenths of a scale step of the stan- 
dard. Because of the seven-grade program they should be above 
rather than below. It is important to note that the fourth 
grade city children did not write as well as the third and that 
the fifth grade children wrote better than the sixth. The scores 
are, therefore, not only lower than they should be but the pro- 
gress is irregular. 

The scores for rural schools having four or more rooms com- 
pare favorably with those for city schools and the progress is 
regular from grade to grade. The average progress is four- 
tenths of a scale step per year, which is less than it should be by 
Starch Standards. The one room country school shows the 
poorest record. 

SPELLING 

For the tests in spelling each child wrote twenty words pro- 
nounced by the examiner. The words were chosen from the 
Ayres Scale in such a fashion that the test constituted a graded 
series with easy words at the beginning and difficult words at 
the end. All words were such as were known to be within the 
writing vocabulary of elementary school children. In the final 
scoring each child was marked on the ten words best adapted to 
his school grade. The average percentage score for each grade 
as indicated on the Ayres Scale was 66.6. This is the median 
for 84 cities. 

The results of the test are shown in Table 45. 

The Ayres Standard based on results from 84 cities is a mid- 
year score. It is proper, therefore, to compare it with the mid- 
year or first half year Virginia scores. These are available only 
for the city schools. All other Virginia scores are for the end 
of the year. 

Each grade was scored on words adapted for that grade and 
upon which the median score was 66.6. For any class to be up 
to standard, therefore, its median score should be this figure at 
the mid-year. For the scores directly comparable (Virginia 
city first half-year) there is just one grade (the fourth) which 
equals or exceeds the standard. The Virginia city second half 



Results of Instruction Measured 



123 



year whose scores should exceed this standard does exceed it in 
three out of the five grades. Similarly the third and fourth 
grade of the four room school exceeds the mid-year standard. 
The most notable deficiencies are in the one-room school 
(all grades) and in the seventh grade for every group tested. 
In three cases the deficiency is a year or more of progress as 
measured on the Ayres Scale. 

Table 45 

Spelling scores of the rural and city schools of Virginia (White) 
compared with the standard scores of 84 cities 



Virginia rural 

Virginia rural 
four-room and 
over 






61 
71 


9 
8 


54.1 
68.1 


56.8 
61.5 




54.6 
62.6 


52.6 

58.7 


Virginia city first 
Virginia city sec- 






57.8 
69.6 


67.0 
63.8 


63.5 
68.3 


57.3 
69.5 


58.6 
63.1 


Virginia Grades 


I II III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


Standard 
Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Ayres Standard. . 




66.6 


66-6 


66.6 66.6 


66.6 


78.2 

























ARITHMETIC 

Are Virginia children acquiring a knowledge of and skill 
in the use of arithmetical processes? To answer this question 
we have data from the Woody tests. Judged by the standard 
scores in these tests the pupils in the schools of Virginia are 
not receiving as good instruction as they are entitled to, for, 
as a whole, they rank low. Doubtless, the most fundamental 
arithmetic ability which children acquire in school is the ability 
to add. The Woody Standard for eighth grade children made 
by pupils at the beginning of the eighth year is 18.5. This 
should be nearly equalled by Virginia children at the end of the 



124 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



sixth year, since the latter have but one more year of elementary 
schooling, due to the seven year course. Virginia children do 
not measure up to this standard. The average seventh grade 
score for Virginia city children at the end of the year is 15.9 
which is the sixth grade Woody Standard for the beginning of 
the year, and it is 15.1, or less than sixth grade Woody Stand- 
ard for the seventh grade, in the best graded rural schools. 
For the one room rural schools it is only 13.5. The results of 
the tests may be seen in Table 46. 



Table Ifi 

Showing the scores of Virginia white children in addition, compared with 
the standards for grades three to seven (Woody Arithmetic Scales) 



Virginia rural 
four-room and 
over 






8.3 


11 


?, 


12.7 




13.9 


15.1 


Virginia city sec- 
half year 






9.4 


12.4 


14.4 


15.2 


15.9 


Virginia Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


Standard 
Grades 


I 


II 


III 


IV V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


Woody Standards 








11.0 

12.3 
11.5 


14.0 

14.5 
14.6 


16.0 

16.0 
15.7 


18.0 

16.7 
16.6 


18.5 


Pittsburgh 
(mid-year) 










Seattle 








17.2 

























If we measure the Virginia schools by the Woody Standard 
we find that they are below the same numbered grades an 
average of 1.3 problems for the non-city schools and .3 problems 
for the city schools. The real deficiency of the Virginia chil- 
dren is greater than this however since a fifth grade in Virginia 
is supposedly more advanced than a fifth grade in the eight 
year school. 

In interpreting the scores in this table it is necessary to keep 
in mind the general over-age of Virginia children, which makes 
their deficiency greater than would appear from the table. In 



Results of Instruction Measured 125 

the seventh grade of Virginia rural schools the average age of 
pupils is 14? years and this score is 15.1 or about midway 
between the Woody Standards for the fifth and sixth grades at 
the beginning of the year. As compared with either Seattle 
or Pittsburg both city and non-city scores in Virginia are lower 
for every grade than are those of the two cities mentioned and 
the inference is that the condition of the teaching of addition in 
the Virginia schools is in need of distinct improvement. 

What is true of addition is generally true of the results in 
substraction, multiplication and division. 1 Rarely do the Vir- 
ginia scores equal the Woody standards. As compared with 
good city schools throughout the country they are almost 
uniformly low. 

As in the case of reading the comparison of the average score 
obscures the fact that certain schools make good records. The 
Robert E. Lee School at Norfolk 2 scores 16.4 in the 6B grade, 
which is approximately the Woody Standard, and the Park 
Street School in Roanoke scores 12.2 in the third grade, which 
is above the third grade Woody Standard. Other instances 
of good scores could be cited. The fact that there are some 
schools scoring above the median, however, implies that there 
are an equal number of children below. It would be an easy 
matter to select from among the schools of practically any 
school division where the tests were given, some which fell much 
below the Virginia average. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PUPILS 

The modern school has developed extensively the system of 
teaching children in groups. With the extension of schooling 
to large numbers there has not yet appeared any generally 
accepted way of avoiding the teaching of from ten to forty 
pupils the same subject at the same time. The method has 
always presented grave difficulties because it is not easy to 
bring together pupils with like minds and of equal stages of 
development. Age is not a sufficient criterion for such grouping 
because some children develop more rapidly than others do. 

1 Details of the scores in those processes must be reserved for the 
special report. 
' Norfolk City has an eight-grade elementary school course. 



126 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The ability to pass the ordinary school examination is not 
sufficient because some children can do much more than the 
examinations require. The teacher's judgment is not always 
correct because the ordinary methods of observation employed 
by teachers are not sufficiently accurate to detect real differ- 
ences in ability. The usual tendency of teachers is to rate dull 
children better than they are and to rate superior children lower 
than they deserve. While all these criteria (age, examinations, 
teachers' judgments) are helpful means of classification, they 
are inadequate measures and frequently lead to such incon- 
gruous grouping as make effective class instruction impossible. 

That educational work in Virginia suffers from such incon- 
gruous grouping of children is easy of demonstration. Particu- 
lar attention will be given to this subject in the special report 
on tests and measurements, but certain illustrative cases may 
be given here. The Survey has available for a study of this 
situation not only the results of the group examinations, but 
also individual examinations on about 2,000 children. These 
individual examinations were made with the Stanford-Binet 
tests and the results are stated in terms of mental age of the 
individual children, a mental age of six meaning a mentality 
equal to that of the average six year old child. 

To illustrate a common situation, we may take the Glen Allen 
School in Henrico County. The third grade in this school is 
composed of twenty-eight children all of whom were examined 
with the Stanford-Binet tests. The median chronological age of 
the group is 10.2 years. The median mental age is 9.5. It is there- 
fore an approximately normal mental group. There is, however, 
one child in the group who has a mental age of 8.1 years, and 
another whose mental age is 12.4, the other children being of 
different mental ages between these two extremes. There is a 
mental difference between the two children mentioned equivalent 
to the mental growth which a normal child makes in four years. 
It does not require much insight to know that these two chil- 
dren require different teaching methods. One of them is the 
equivalent of an average second grade child, and the other is 
equal to the average child in the sixth grade. 

The condition of this Glen Allen class is not peculiar. In 
grade 4B of the Ginter Park School (Richmond) there is one 



Results of Instruction Measured 



127 



child with a mentality of 14 years and 3 months, and another 
whose mentality is that of a child nine years and seven months 
old. In the Highland Springs fifth grade of forty-six pupils, 
nine read equal to the Thorndike Standard for the third grade, 
and five others read equal to the standard for the sixth grade. 
Somewhat similar conditions can be found in practically any 
school. 

As indicated earlier, such conditions are not peculiar to the 
schools of Virginia, but their existence here in a somewhat 
aggravated form, particularly in the rural schools, demands 
attention in this chapter. 

The best general view of the situation may be obtained from 
the results of the Delta 1 tests. Experience with this test shows 
that it indicates to a high degree and with a fair degree of accu- 
racy the general ability of children to do school work. 

In Table 47 are given the median grade scores for Virginia 
city children. 

Table 47 

Showing the median scores made by white children in the 
cities of Virginia on the general examination (Delta 1) . 



Grade 






Ill 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 










Scores 






38 


58 


77 


92 


103 











If we examine the scores in this table we see that there is a 
step from one grade to the next of almost sixteen points, a 
little more in the lower grades and a little less in the upper 
grades. The fifth grade score is 77. We may interpret these 
figures as meaning that an average fifth grade child is one whose 
score is approximately nineteen points above the score for the 
fourth grade and about sixteen points below the score for the 
sixth grade. If a fifth grade pupil should exceed these limits 
of variation he should advance into the sixth grade or drop 
back into the fourth grade. 

Now what do we find in an examination of Virginia's fifth 
grade classes? Only random cases may be cited. The 5 A class 
of twenty pupils in the Midway School at Charlottesville has 



128 The Public Schools of Virginia 

four pupils who score 38 or less, which is about third grade 
ability, and it has one child who scores 94 or approximately 
sixth grade quality. Of fifteen pupils in the 5B class in one 
Portsmouth school five pupils score 95 or better, about sixth 
grade standard, and three pupils score below 70. Of fifteen 
5B pupils in the Commerce Street School of Roanoke four have 
scores equal to sixth grade score or better, and there are three 
as low as or lower than the fourth grade median. The distribu- 
tion is greater in the rural schools than in the cities. Of seven 
hundred twenty-three pupils in fifty-five schools having four 
or more rooms, 46 are below the third grade median; 146 are 
between the third and fourth grade medians; twenty-one are 
as good as the seventh grade medians; and twenty-five others 
score equal to the sixth grade or beyond. The remaining 450 
are between the fourth grade median and the sixth grade median. 
Yet, all of these pupils are ranked as fifth grade pupils and 
must follow the same course of study and are expected to com- 
plete it in two additional years. Forty-six of them under good 
conditions could complete it in one year. For forty-six others 
it will require four years. Situations of this sort can be shown 
for any grade and in almost any class examined. 

Radical and definite steps should be taken for improvement. 
First of all there should be an improvement in the methods of 
determining the classification. It is not enough that a child 
has reached a certain age, that he has been in school a certain 
number of years, that he has followed a particular coarse of 
study and passed the examinations set by his teachers. All of 
these matters are important but the knowledge which a teacher 
gets about a child from these sources should be supplemented 
by the pupils' scores in standard achievemenc tests, particu- 
larly in reading, and by his scores in mental tests where these 
can be effectively given. If teachers and principals will learn 
to use these standard mental and achievement tests they will 
be better able to group pupils according to capacity than they 
are now doing. 

A thorough going attempt to classify children will inevitably 
lead to the organization of special classes. In the first place 
the feeble minded will be separated and should be segregated. 
For such children the State should establish a State school 



Results of Instruction Measured 129 

where they may be gathered together and taught under custo- 
dial conditions such things as they may learn. Aside from 
these there are a number of backward children in every school, 
who should if possible be provided for in opportunity classes. 
Not alone for backward children but for those of superior 
ability should there be special provision in separate classes 
where they can progress in educational development according 
to their capacity. The best practice would seem to indicate 
the organization of classes for superior children about the 
fourth or fifth grade. 

Even where the school conditions do not allow for special 
classes much can be done by the regrouping of pupils in the 
regular classes. The bright pupils can be put forward where 
they will quickly make up any omissions they may have suffered 
by skipping. The weaker pupils can be kept together to be 
taught by methods adapted to their level of development. 

INFERIOR RESULTS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 

About four-fifths of all school children in Virginia receive 
their education in non-city schools and about 44 per cent, are 
enrolled in one-room or two-room schools. For that reason 
the character of the instruction provided and the results of 
that instruction are of special importance. 

All the evidence from the tests given indicate that the work 
of the rural schools, is of a very inferior character. Compara- 
tive scores are given in Table 48. 

The inferiority of the small rural school is apparent from 
the figures given. In reality that inferiority is even greater 
since in all non-city schools children are on the average about 
a year older than city children and in one-room schools children 
are on the average about a year and one-half older than city 
children in each of the upper grades of the elementary school. 

In arithmentic the inferiority of the one-room school is 
perhaps most marked, children in such schools being on the 
average one grade behind children in the larger non-city schools 
and one and one-half grades behind children in the city schools. 

NEGRO SCHOOLS 

As in the case of schools for white pupils effort was made to 
measure the achievements of pupils in various types of schools 



130 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



for colored pupils. One-room rural schools, graded rural schools, 
and city schools for colored children were examined with the 
full set of tests. 

Table 48 

Comparing achievement in rural and city schools (white) 
(Median scores) 





Rural Schools 


City 


SUBJECT 


One-room 


Four-room 
or more 


Schools 


Grade III Addition 


6.8 

61.9 

3.9 

8.8 


8.3 

71.8 

4.3 

9.3 


9.4 


Spelling 


69.6 


Heading 


4.9 




9.5 


Grade IV . . Addition 


8.4 

54.1 

5.0 

9.4 


111 

68.1 
4.9 
9.5 


12.4 


Spelling 


63.8 


Reading 


5.1 




9.4 


Grade V Addition 


11.2 

56.8 

5.4 

10.0 


12.7 

61.5 

5.6 

10.0 


14.4 


Spelling 


68.3 


Reading 


5.6 


Handwriting 


10.2 


Grade VI . . . .Addition 


11.3 

54.6 

6.3 

9.9 


13.9 

62 6 

6.3 

10.5 


15.2 


Spelling 


69.5 


Reading 


7.1 


Handwriting 


9.8 


Grade VII Addition 


13.6 
52.6 


15.2 

58.7 

6.9 

10.0 


15.9 


Spelling 


63.1 


Reading 


7.3 




10.4 


11.5 



Unfortunately no comparative scores in any of those tests 
are available for negroes outside of Virginia and the only com- 
parison possible is that with the scores made by white children 
in Virginia and elsewhere. The scores made are presented in 
Table 49 and comparison made with the scores of white children. 



Results of Instruction Measured 



131 



Table 49 

Showing median scores for colored children compared with 
those fcr white children 





BJECT 


Rural Schools 


City Schools 


su 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


White 


Grade III. 


Reading 

Handwriting. 


8.3 

61.5 

4.1 

8.7 


8.2 

61.9 

4.1 

8.8 


7.8 

62.4 

3.1 

9.6 


9.4 

69.6 

4.9 

9.5 


Grade IV 


Reading 

Handwriting. 


10.7 

58.2 

5.1 

9.0 


10.3 

54.1 

4.9 

9.4 


12.5 

56.2 

5.1 

10.3 


12.0 

63.8 

5.1 

9.4 


Grade V 


Reading 

Handwriting. 


11.3 

50.4 

5.5 

9.6 


12.7 

56.8 

5.4 

10.0 


14.1 

63.5 

5.5 

11.2 


14.1 

68.3 

5.6 

10.2 


Grade VI 


Reading 

Handwriting. 


13.5 

53.9 

6.4 

10.1 


13.9 

54.6 

6.2 

9.9 


14.6 

59.5 

6.7 

10.8 


15.4 

69.5 

7.1 

9.8 


Grade VII. 


Spelling 


14.7 


15.1 

52.6 

6.9 

10.4 


14.6 

62.9 

6.8 

12.3 


16 
63.1 




Reading 

Handwriting. 


6.5 


7.3 
11.5 









An examination of the table shows that the apparent dif- 
ferences are not very great between the achievements of 
colored children and those of white children. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that in almost every grade considered colored 
pupils are on the average a year or more older and have attended 
school on the average a year longer than the white pupils. 
(See chapter IV.) 



132 The Public Schools of Virginia 

CAUSES OF POOR WORK 

Manifold causes operate to produce the results shown in 
this chapter. While thorough analysis of them will not be 
attempted here, attention may be called to certain salient 
conditions which should be overcome in the interest of an 
improved school product. Most of these have received extended 
discussion elsewhere in this report. Most of what is here said 
applies primarily to the rural schools where improvement is 
most obviously needed. Outstanding among all the probable 
causes of poor work may be mentioned (a) the irregular entrance 
of pupils into school and their irregular attendance thereafter, 
conditions which lead to non-promotion, excessive overageness 
and elimination from school before the completion of the 
elementary course; (b) the short school term which prevails in 
many districts; (c) the lack of a sufficient number of well 
trained teachers; (d) the large number of one-room schools; 
(e) the absence of uniform standards of achievement for the 
fundamental subjects in the elementary grades; (f) the inade- 
quacy of methods of classifying children in school; (g) the 
dearth of special classes for unusual children; (h) the inadequacy 
of supervision. Lying back of these causes is the inadequate 
financial support which the schools receive. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Most of the recommendations to be made here are made else- 
where in this report on the basis of other data than that of 
tests and measurements. Their repetition here merely brings 
them into relation to the test results. Chief among the neces- 
sary changes are (a) the passage of an effective compulsory 
education law; (b) the lengthening of the school term to a one 
hundred eighty day minimum; (c) improvement in the 
qualifications of teachers; (d) the increase of supervision, par- 
ticularly of the rural schools; (e) a reduction of the one-room 
schools wherever possible in favor of consolidation; (f) the 
restriction of one-room schools to five grades; (g) improve- 
ment in the classification of children; (h) the employment of 
standardized educational and mental tests in the classification 
of children; (i) the organization of special classes for backward 
and superior children; (j) the creation in the State Department 
of a bureau of educational investigation. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE TEACHING FORCE IN VIRGINIA 

IT requires no argument to show that education is fundamen- 
tally determined by the character of the teachers charged 
with the responsibility of providing instruction. In this chap- 
ter an attempt is made to analyze the character of the teaching 
force in Virginia, the following important questions being con- 
sidered, (i) Are teachers provided in sufficient number? (ii) 
Is the teaching force sufficiently stable to ensure effective 
instruction? (iii) Are the teachers of Virginia properly educated 
and trained? (iv) Is the pay of teachers high enough to attract 
and retain capable men and women? (v) How may neces- 
sary improvements be brought about? 

i. — ARE TEACHERS PROVIDED IN SUFFICIENT NUMBER? 

The first question calling for answer in an analysis of the 
teaching force of public schools in Virginia is this : Are enough 
teachers provided to furnish instruction to the children of the 
State? For the present, considering teacher adequacy from a 
quantitative viewpoint only, and deferring the consideration of 
quality, we find the situation to be as shown below. 

In Table 50 are presented figures showing the number of 
pupils to each teacher in Virginia for various years during the 
last decade. Those figures show that on the average there are 
about thirty-three white pupils enrolled for each white teacher 
employed, and about forty-eight colored pupils enrolled for 
each colored teacher employed, or about twenty-three white 
pupils in average daily attendance for each white teacher 
employed, and about thirty colored pupils in average daily 
attendance for each colored teacher employed. For the State as 
a whole and on the average apparently the number of white 
teachers employed is relatively satisfactory, but the number 
of colored teachers is inadequate and would be impossibly 
inadequate if attendance were brought up to any reasonable 
standard. 



134 The Public Schools of Virginia 

It is obvious that in measuring teacher adequacy good aver- 
ages may easily conceal a very bad situation. Thus twenty 
schools, ten of which had each one teacher for every ten pupils, 
and ten of which had each forty pupils for each teacher, would 
show an average of twenty-five pupils for each teacher, though 
the ratio of teachers and pupils in each school would be very 
undesirable. Now very many schools in Virginia indicate just 
such extremes, and, therefore, the county-wide ratios (for 1917- 
18) shown in Table 52 are very significant. That table shows 
that in twenty-three counties of the State the number of white 
pupils in average daily attendance to each white teacher is less 
than fifteen, while in other counties the ratio increases until at 
the other extreme one county has forty-nine white pupils in 
average daily attendance per teacher employed. In four coun- 
ties there are from forty-one to forty-five colored pupils in 
average daily attendance for each teacher employed, and one 
county caps the climax by having sixty-three colored pupils in 
average daily attendance for each colored teacher employed in 
the county. 

In individual schools the number of pupils under the charge 
of one teacher varies widely — and necessarily so. There is no 
justification, however, for county-wide extremes indicated above 
or for the extremes indicated by the figures in Table 53, which 
show the number of pupils per teacher in 738 non-city schools 
of different types in 1917-18. Those figures show that about 
eighteen per cent of the white schools and fifty per cent of the 
colored schools investigated were above the dead line (forty 
pupils to a teacher) in regard to the number of pupils enrolled 
under one teacher, and that about seven per cent of the white 
schools and twenty-three per cent of the colored schools were 
above the dead line (thirty pupils to a teacher) as measured by 
the number of pupils in average daily attendance. 1 The figures 
also show that absurdly small classes are not confined to one- 
room schools, nor impossibly large classes to the larger schools. 
In many small town schools, where all grades are taught in the 
same building, the teacher of the lower grades frequently has 
three or four times as many pupils as all high school teachers. 

1 In a one-room colored school visited were found 110 pupils enrolled 
and 85 pupils present in a room 17x23 feet- 



Teaching Force 135 

It is as well here, perhaps, as anywhere to call attention to 
the fact that male teachers in the elementary schools of Virginia 
as elsewhere are decreasing in numbers and proportions almost 
to the point of disappearance. In Table 54 are presented figures 
showing that the proportion of male teachers in public schools 
of all types and for the entire State of Virginia has decreased 
from about two-thirds (64 per cent for whites and 67 per cent 
for negroes) in 1871 to about one-eighth (12 per cent for whites, 
and 14 per cent for negroes) in 1918. Among 1,592 white 
teachers in 798 county schools intensively investigated only 
143 men teachers (9 per cent of the total number of white 
teachers) were found, and among 366 colored teachers in 272 
county schools only 53 men teachers (about 14 per cent of the 
total number of colored teachers) were found. Few country 
children ever come in contact with men teachers. 

This is not the place to discuss the relative qualities of men 
and women teachers, and in the presentation of the above facts 
there is no intent to raise the question. The facts presented 
for Virginia are not worse than are found in most parts of the 
country — in fact the proportion of men teachers is larger in 
the South than in most parts of the country. Nevertheless, it 
is for the people of Virginia to determine whether or not they 
wish men teachers to disappear from the schools of the State. 
The reason for the present situation is, of course, primarily, a 
matter of the low salaries paid. 

Summarizing the matter of the supply of teachers (numeri- 
cally considered) we may say that on the average the number 
of teachers is in general fairly satisfactory for white schools, 
but very unsatisfacory for colored schools. Averages, however, 
are very misleading in this connection, and it is not at all 
unusual to find excessively small classes and excessively large 
classes. For the waste which comes through numerous small 
schools the remedy lies in many cases in more and better school 
consolidation. When excessively large classes jeopardize or 
destroy efficient instruction, the remedy must be found in an 
increase of the teaching staff. No teacher should ever be 
expected to care for more than forty pupils enrolled, or for more 
than thirty pupils in average daily attendance. A reasonable 
standard is about twenty-five pupils to a teacher. 



136 The Public Schools of Virginia 

ii. — IS THE TEACHING FORCE STABLE? 

Industrial and business concerns have recently come to real- 
ize that the size of the "labor turnover" (i.e., the number of 
new workers who must be engaged, in many cases only to be 
replaced in a short time) is one of the most serious factors 
limiting the efficiency of their business and imperilling their 
dividends. With respect to the "teacher turnover" public 
school administration shares this problem with other enterprises 
and the same business principles apply here as in the industrial 
or commercial fields. Where teachers change from year to 
year efficiency can no more be secured than where important 
employees in an industry or business change frequently. To 
the general consideration must be added the fact that no small 
part of the State's investment in the training of teachers is 
wasted (as far as the schools are concerned) when teachers 
receive a relatively expensive training only to teach for a year 
or two. 1 

What is the "teacher turnover" in the schools of Virginia? 

Unfortunately this question cannot be answered as definitely 
as the survey staff would desire, since the survey was made 
during an "off year" when the usual instability of the teaching 
force of the State was exaggerated by the abnormal industrial 
and commercial conditions, due to war. Investigation showed 
that for the school year 1918-19 the situation was as indicated 
by the figures in Table 55. Those figures show that: 

(1). In non-city white schools of all types between one- 
fifth and one-quarter of the teachers had had no teaching 
experience before this year, and one-sixth had had only one 
year of previous experience. In colored schools of the same 
classes about one-fifth had had no experience, and about one- 
ninth had had only one year of experience in teaching before 
this year. For white teachers the median number of years 
experience prior to this year was 1.4 years, for colored teachers 
it was four years. 

(2). In one-room schools more than one-third of the white 
teachers had had no experience before this year, and fifteen 

1 Emphasis here merely on the business aspect of the situation 
should not obscure the great importance of other aspects which are 
involved. 



Teaching Force 137 

per cent had had only one year's experience. In schools of 
this class between one-fifth and one-quarter of the colored 
teachers had had no experience before this year, and one- 
ninth had had only one year's experience before this year. For 
white teachers in one-room schools the median years experience 
before this year was less than one year. For colored teachers 
in schools of that class the median was three and one-half years. 

(3). In non-city high schools (white only considered here) 
the teaching force was fairly stable, the median years of experi- 
ence before this year being over four and one-half years. 

It is true that these figures represent abnormal conditions. 
But it is also true that the normal condition of the teaching 
force of Virginia is one of great instability. In school after 
school in the rural districts visited by members of the survey 
staff it was reported that the same teacher rarely remained 
more than one year in the school and it is not without significance 
that the State Department issues about six thousand certifi- 
cates 1 annually for a school system having in all less than four- 
teen thousand teachers. The certificating officer of the State 
Department estimates the number of new teachers entering 
the State system at between twenty-five and thirty-five hun- 
dred teachers per year. 

The evils of a markedly unstable teaching force or one requir- 
ing a large proportion of new teachers each year are numerous : 
(a) the education of children suffers greatly under the instruc- 
tion of new and inexperienced teachers; (b) proper grading in 
the schools is seriously handicapped where each new teacher 
must learn the children anew; (c) the identification of the 
teacher with community life is impossible and, therefore, her 
efficiency is greatly curtailed ; (d) the general status of education 
must always remain at a relatively low level when inexperi- 
enced teachers merely replace other inexperienced teachers; 
(e) the development of a professional spirit and of an esprit 
de corps is impossible; (f) the work of the teacher-training 
institutions is seriously handicapped and to some extent wasted 
in turning out teachers who teach for one, two, or three years 



1 Including extensions, renewals, and higher grade certificates 
issued in place of lower grade certificates on the basis of improved 
qualifications. 



138 The Public Schools of Virginia 

and then withdraw from the profession; (h) certificating stand- 
ards are always kept low through the necessity of providing 
a group of teachers numerically adequate for the demand. 
There is no hope of supplying with proper training the over- 
large number of new teachers required annually under present 
conditions. 

Why do not teachers remain in the profession? The number 
and proportion of those leaving is large because (a) the pay of 
teachers is so low that the profession cannot compete for 
workers with relatively low-grade occupations requiring little 
or no training (see below in this chapter) ; (b) the status of the 
teacher is not well recognized in general; (c) living conditions 
are frequently unsatisfactory in some parts of the State, and 
(d) the great majority of teachers being women many of them 
marry and then cease to teach. The remedies for the present 
situation, are (a) raising the pay of teachers to a level sufficient 
to retain them, (b) better recognition by the community of the 
teachers' work, (c) provision for better living conditions in the 
rural districts, (d) a larger proportion of men teachers, (e) 
provisions for tenure of office. 

iii. — ARE TEACHERS WELL EDUCATED AND WELL TRAINED? 

Contact with thousands of teachers in all parts of the State 
has convinced members of the survey staff that as a body the 
public-school teachers of Virginia are intelligent and earnest 
men and women, conscientiously laboring to perform properly 
the tasks in which they are engaged. As in any other group of 
teachers, or in groups of people engaged in any other business 
or profession, all sorts and conditions are found, ranging from 
those teachers who are well trained and infused with a pro- 
fessional spirit which amounts to consecration, to those teachers 
who are in every way totally unfitted for the task of teaching. 
Nevertheless, in the native intelligence, personal character, 
and earnestness, Virginia teachers are fully on a par with the 
teachers in other parts of the country. 

Where, then, lies the cause of the unsatisfactory condition 
which is recognized by the teachers and citizens of Virginia, 
and is obvious to the most casual observation of an outsider? 
The cause for the present unsatisfactory condition is found in 



Teaching Force 139 

the fact that as a whole the teaching force of the schools in 
Virginia is woefully lacking in the education and training essen- 
tial for good teaching. 

Figure 6 

Showing the proportion of elementary school teachers having not more than 
jour years of high school education 

See Table 66 



Non-city white City white Non-city colored; 

schools schools schools 

Q/ 36% ^V Y 78 % ^\ 



This may be seen from the figures presented in Table 56 which 
for 1918-19 shows the numbers and per cents of elementary 
school teachers who have received various amounts of educa- 
tion and professional training. From these figures it is seen 
that: 

(1). In the non-city elementary schools more than one-fifth 
of the white teachers and nearly two-fifths of the colored 
teachers have received an education which is only the equiva- 
lent of two years of high-school education. In those schools 
nearly three-quarters of the white teachers and more than three- 
quarters of the colored teachers have received an education 
which is the equivalent of not more than a four year high- 
school education. The median amount of education and train- 
ing received by white teachers in such schools is slightly more 
than the equivalent of three grades of high-school education, 
and the median amount of education and training received by 
colored teachers in non-city schools is about the equivalent of 
two and one-half years of high-school education. 



140 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(2). In city elementary schools more than one-third of the 
white teachers have received education and training not higher 
than the equivalent of four grades of high-school instruction, 
and the median amount of education received by such teachers 
is the equivalent of one year of college or normal school. This 
situation is true of large cities as well as small, though not 
equally applicable to all. 

(3). High-school teachers in large cities are for the most 
part college-trained men and women. In the smaller cities 
their education and training on the whole is less satisfactory. 
For non-city high schools the figures presented in Table 58 
show the relative numbers and per cents of non-city high- 
school teachers in eighteen counties of Virginia who have had 
various amounts of education and professional training. There 
it may be noted that the training of such teachers is very far 
from satisfactory, the median number of years of education 
received being less than two years beyond the high school, and 
nearly fifteen per cent having received an education no higher 
than the older pupils of the schools in which they teach. 

It is true that the figures presented in Tables 56 and 58 are 
those for the school year 1918-19 when conditions were very 
unsettled and the supply of teachers of any sort was very much 
curtailed by social and economic conditions. It is also true, 
however, that figures provided by the State Department for 
1916-17 do not indicate a situation noticeably different. Thus 
the figures presented in Table 57 show that less than one-half 
of the teachers of the State in 1916-17 had had an education 
above that represented by the high school. 1 The general level 
of experience may have been lower in 1918-19, but it does not 
appear that the level of education and training was materially 
changed. 

The qualifications of Virginia teachers may also be seen from 
the certificates which they hold. Figures presented in Table 72 
show that in 1918-19 more than two-fifths of the white teachers, 
more than two-thirds of the colored teachers, and more than 
one-half of all teachers in the State are entitled to hold only 

1 An examination of similar figures for 1913-14, 1914-15, 1915-16 
shows that 1916-17 was not a typical year. See Report of the (Virginia) 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction 1915-16, page 84. 



Teaching Force 141 

First Grade Certificates, Second Grade Certificates, or Local 
Permits. This means that less than one-half of the teachers 
of Virginia have received at best not more than a high-school 
education . They also show that more.than one-half of the teachers 
in the State are without any professional training, except in some 
cases what they may have received in summer institutes or 
summer schools. 

Figures presented in Tables 73 and 74 show that the situa- 
tion was not appreciably different in 1917-18. In that year one 
county (Stafford) did not have a single teacher entitled to hold 
a certificate above the "First Grade," and in all, seventeen 
counties in the State had each less than one-fifth of its teachers 
entitled to certificates higher than First Grade. 

iv. — IS THE PAY OF TEACHERS HIGH ENOUGH TO ATTRACT 
AND RETAIN CAPABLE MEN AND WOMEN? 

The laws of wages and the laws of supply and demand operate 
just as surely and just as effectively in the case of school teachers 
as in the case of any other body of workers. The problem of the 
teacher's pay cannot be solved on the basis of what people 
think teachers deserve, or on the basis of what teachers believe 
that their services are worth. In the long run and for the State 
as a whole the problem is fundamentally an economic problem 
and must be solved by recognized economic principles. In 
other words, the pay of teachers is a plain business proposition. 
On the one hand the people of the State desire to purchase cer- 
tain skilled service; on the other hand certain men and women 
have that skilled service for sale or are willing to equip them- 
selves with the requisite skill if the returns therefrom are large 
enough to warrant the necessary effort. 

Are the salaries paid to school teachers in Virginia high 
enough to secure capable teachers and to retain them? 

In Table 59 are presented figures showing the average annual 
salaries paid to teachers in Virginia for the past six years. The 
figures show that the average annual salary paid to white 
teachers is approximately $351 for non-city schools, and $658 
for city schools, while the average annual salary paid to colored 
teachers is approximately $175 for non-city schools, and $391 
for city schools. 



142 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The latest available returns (1915-16) permitting comparison 
indicate that Virginia occupies a position about seventh from 
the bottom of the list of States with respect to the average 
monthly or yearly salaries paid its teachers, the average annual 
salary paid in Virginia being less than half that paid in the 
North Atlantic or Western States. (Cf. Table 60.) 

Figure 7 

Showing for 1915-16 (latest comparative figures available) a comparison 
of the average annual salaries for teachers in Virginia and elsewhere 

See Table 60 



South Atlantic States 



South Centra) State.' 



342 39 



413.58 



569.65 

Y7777777777777777777777777Z7777A 

North Atlantic States 



North Central State* 

728 56 



Western State." 



United States 



Nowhere, however, are averages more deceptive measures 
of a central tendency than in the case of salaries, where one 
large salary paid to a principal or teacher may effect two or 
more very low salaries paid. In Table 61 are presented figures 
showing for 1917-18 the number of counties in Virginia having 
various average records for the annual salaries of teachers. 
These figures show that: (a) the median averages for non-city 
schools were $348.76 for white teachers and $177.48 for colored 
teachers; (b) county averages vary for white teachers' salaries 
all the way from $201-$225 to $576-$600,and for colored teachers' 
salaries all the way from under $100 to $401 -$425; (c) more than 
one-quarter of the counties have average records of less than 
$300 for the annual salaries of white teachers and of less than 
$150 for the annual salaries of colored teachers. 

For individual teachers the extremes of salary are shown in 
Table 62 for elementary schools, and in Table 63 for high schools 



Teaching Force 143 

of Virginia in 1918-19. Is it strange that district boards and 
superintendents found difficulty in securing and retaining 
teachers when the annual salaries paid were under $250 for one- 
eighth of the white teachers, and one-half of the colored teachers 
in non-city elementary schools? 
There can be no doubt that for the State as a whole Virginia 
is not securing and retaining capable, skilled teachers. There 
can also be no doubt that the principal reason for present con- 
ditions is found in the low wages paid to teachers. The fact 
is that there is no possibility of maintaining even a reasonably 
satisfactory system of public schools in the State of Virginia 
as long as the wages of teachers on the average are lower than 
those paid to unskilled labor. 

V. HOW MAY NECESSARY IMPROVEMENTS BE BROUGHT ABOUT? 

There can be no doubt that, from a professional viewpoint 
and for the State as a whole, the teaching force in the public 
schools of Virginia is at a very low level — a level so low that 
there is no hope of effective education in the State unless and 
until conditions are very decidedly improved. 

How can these conditions be improved? How can Virginia 
attract and retain a sufficient number of adequately educated 
and properly trained teachers? There is but one answer to these 
questions — by making the rewards for such service sufficient. 

How can these rewards be made sufficient? Several means 
have been employed in other States: (1) increasing the pay of 
teachers; (2) encouraging stay in the profession by provision 
for teachers'pensions ; (3) encouraging stay in the profession by 
provision for tenure of position in the case of experienced and 
qualified teachers; (4) making more satisfactory the conditions 
of teachers in rural districts. The relation of teacher certifica- 
tion and teacher training to the problems of improving the 
teaching force are considered in the next chapters. 

(1). Increasing the Pay of Teachers: The laws of supply 
and demand, and the laws of occupational competition are not 
suspended in the case of teachers in Virginia. The State gets 
and will continue to get exactly what it pays for — no more and 
no less in the long run. At present it is receiving very inferior 



144 The Public Schools of Virginia 

service for what very inferior service costs. It must receive very- 
much better service and it must pay what better service costs. 

The teacher's pay must be raised very materially. What 
should be the amount? To this question no single answer can 
be given, since the economic conditions of living and occupa- 
tional competition vary widely for men and women, for different 
types of teaching, for whites and negroes, in different parts of 
the State, and in communities of different types, At present 
teachers receive an annual income (or monthly income) from 
their profession far lower than workers in other professions 
demanding special training, and the average returns from 
teaching in Virginia are less than from most forms of unskilled 
labor. The amount of increase in teachers' pay must be suffi- 
cient to raise it to the level of pay in those occupations demand- 
ing an equivalent amount of training and an equivalent amount 
of expenditure for that training. In the judgment of the survey 
staff, properly trained and adequately educated teachers can- 
not be provided in Virginia unless the minimum salary for well- 
experienced teachers holding the highest certificate approxi- 
mates one thousand dollars per annum, and unless the mini- 
mum salary of any full-time teacher employed approximates 
$500 per annum. 

Undoubtedly many teachers in Virginia at the present time 
are not worth $500. The surest way to eliminate such teachers, 
however, is to set the pay of teachers at such a minimum mark 
that capable teachers will be attracted and drive out the infe- 
rior teachers. 

Since 1913, according to the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statis- 
tics, 1 the cost of food has increased one hundred per cent, the 
cost of clothing one hundred fourteen per cent and all commo- 
dities one hundred per cent. The average annual salary of 
teachers in Virginia was wretchedly low — less than a living 
wage — in 1913. Since then it has been increased less than 
thirty per cent, so that the discrepancy between the teacher's 
pay and a living wage has been increased rather than decreased 
within the past five or six years, salary increases having fallen 
far behind increases in the cost of living. 



1 Monthly Labor Review, United States Department of Labor, 
Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 1919, page 143. 



Teaching Force 145 

{2) . Teachers' Pensions : At present legal provision is made 
in Virginia for teachers' pensions payable for physical or men- 
tal disbility after twenty years of service, or, if the teacher is 
placed on the retired list by the State Board of Education, after 
thirty years of service and after reaching the age of fifty eight 
for men or fifty for women. The fund is derived from one 
per cent compulsory contributions from each teacher employed, 
from annual appropiations by the State, 1 and from legacies, 
bequests, etc. The pension paid is one half of the average 
annual salary received by the retired teacher during the last 
five years of service as a teacher in the State, with a maximum 
of five hundred dollars. 

In 1917-18, 430 retired teachers were recipients of pensions, 
the total amount paid in pensions that year being $56,805.73, 
or an average annual payment of S132.ll per retired teacher. 2 
With a State-wide average annual salary of less than $400 it is 
clear that the pension paid to retired teachers (most of which 
came from teachers contributions) cannot be a very significant 
item attracting capable teachers. With salaries approaching 
an adequate amount, however, the pension law, if reconstructed 
along the lines suggested at the close of this chapter, might 
very well prove a really effective instrument assisting in the 
development of a better trained and more stable teaching force. 

It should be recognized that teachers' pensions are not based 
on philanthropy or charity. Neither are they bonuses. When 
given for disability they partake of the nature of insurance for 
the benefit of the teacher and of the State. When granted for 
retirement, teachers' pensions in the long run are nothing more 
and nothing less than partially deferred salaries, even if the 
entire amount of the pension were paid out of public funds and 
there were no direct contributions by the teachers themselves. 

(3). Improving Conditions for Teachers in Rural Districts: 
Several factors tend to discourage young men and women from 
entering the service in rural schools: (a) the majority of rural 
schools are of the one-teacher type, demanding an amount of 



1 In 1918-19 the State appropriation was $10,000. 
* For sixty-three teachers retired on pension in 1917-18 the median 
annual pension was $134.80. 



146 The Public Schools of Virginia 

labor out of all proportion to the wages paid; (b) the pay is 
low and the school term short; (c) the school buildings and 
equipment frequently are very poor; (d) it is frequently very 
difficult and sometimes all but impossible to secure satisfactory 
living conditions. 

Remedies for present conditions may be found in: (a) reduc- 
tion through consolidation of the larger number of one-teacher 
schools (See chapter XV) ; (b) increase of pay and extension of 
the school term (See chapter II) ; (c) the improvement of school 
buildings and equipment (See chapter XVII); (d) the mainte- 
nance of teachers' cottages in rural districts. 

With the exception of teachers' cottages the improvements 
mentioned are considered elsewhere in this report. Teachers' 
cottages require consideration here. 

Until living conditions are improved for teachers in many 
rural districts, it cannot be expected that capable men and 
women will go to those districts to teach or remain there. At 
present in many districts there is no possibility of teachers secur- 
ing anything like satisfactory living conditions. In some cases 
they must live at a great distance from the school in which they 
teach. In other cases they are compelled to live in homes 
already overcrowded, and where they would never live if there 
were any alternative. In still other cases teachers have been 
forced to give up their positions either because they could find 
no place at all to live, or because such places as were available 
were intolerable. 

In other States the only solution found has been the building 
of teachers' cottages and a few (18 or 20 up to 1918) have been 
built in Virginia. An extension of the policy already begun 
should do much to attract and retain capable teachers in rural 
districts which at present cannot provide satisfactory living 
conditions for them. 

It should be noted that the building and maintenance of 
teachers' cottages need add little or nothing to the cost of main- 
taining schools in any district. The rent is, of course, reckoned 
in the teachers' remuneration. As a renting proposition teachers 
cottages are in a preferred class from an investment viewpoint, 
since occupancy is assured and the payment of rent guaranteed. 



Teaching Force 147 

(4). Tenure of Office: Nothing is more disruptive of school 
organization and educational development than continual 
change in the teaching force. For that reason many States have 
made some provision for tenure of office for the teacher. In 
some States that provision has taken the form of a law guaran- 
teeing retention in office after a specified period of service. 
In other States retention in office has been encouraged by pro- 
vision for a salary bonus to teachers remaining more than one 
year in the same school. 

In the judgment of the Survey Staff the State of Virginia 
should pass a law guaranteeing tenure of office, during good 
behavior, to every teacher holding a high-grade professional 
certificate who has performed satisfactory service for at least 
three years in the same school. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That steps be taken at once to increase the pay of teachers. 
The survey staff does not believe that any fixed salary schedule 
can be set for the State as a whole. It recommends, however, 
that the minimum annual salary for any teacher engaged in 
full-time service be set at not less than five hundred dollars, 
and a standard for the minimum annual salary of any teacher 
holding the highest grade certificate for his class of service and 
having had at least three years of experience be set at not less 
than one thousand dollars. 

2. That the present teachers' retirement law be amended: 
(a) so as to make retirement, after at least twenty years of 
service, voluntary at the age of sixty or sixty-five, and compul- 
sory at the age of sixty-five or seventy, or compulsory for disa- 
bility at any time at the discretion of the State Board of Educa- 
tion ; (b) so as to provide an annual appropiation of State funds 
equal to the amount of the teachers' compulsory contributions; 
(c) so that the retiring allowance shall be determined on a true 
actuarial basis with reference to the teachers' contributions and 
State appropiations, rather than on the basis of arbitrary pro- 
portions of the teachers' salary ; (d) so as to provide for an equity 
clause in the case of teachers withdrawing without retirement 
allowance. 



148 The Public Schools of Virginia 

3. That the State, through building loan funds, encourage 
rural districts to establish teachers' cottages, those cottages 
to be rented to teachers at a rate not to exceed four per cent 
of the cost of construction plus one per cent of the cost of main- 
tenance. 

4. That a law be passed guaranteeing tenure of office, unless 
dismissed for proven cause, to every teacher holding a high- 
grade professional certificate (at present Collegiate Professional 
or Normal Professional) who has performed satisfactory service 
for at least three years in the same school. 

Note — Recommendations concerning teacher training and teacher 
certification are made in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

POR the training of white teachers provision is made by the 
State at the four State Normal Schools for women (Farm- 
ville, Fredericksburg, Harrisonburg, and Radford), in the 
Department of Normal Training at the College of William 
and Mary (men and women) in the Department of Education 
of the University of Virginia (men only in the regular session), 
and in the Department of Agricultural Education of the Vir- 
ginia Polytechnic Institute (men only). Several private insti- 
tutions contribute graduates who become teachers. Richmond 
maintains a city normal school. Finally, a few public high 
schools provide a normal training department, subsidized by 
the State. 

For the training of colored teachers the State maintains one 
institution, the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute at 
Petersburg. Richmond also maintains a colored normal school 
supported and controlled by the City. In addition an attempt 
is made to provide some normal training work in the twenty- 
eight County Training Schools, some of which receive State 
subsidies. Since these are practically two-year high schools, 
the normal training is perforce very limited. As a matter of 
fact the great majority of colored teachers are without any 
professional training, and the supply of trained teachers from 
the State Normal and Industrial Institute and from privately 
endowed institutions is far below the demand. 

1. — THE NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR WHITE WOMEN 

The principal sources of supply for white teachers are the 
four State Normal Schools for Women at Farmville, Freder- 
icksburg, Harrisonburg, and Radford. 

(a). Control: Each of these normal schools was formerly 
under the control and supervision of a separate Board. In 1916 
all four were placed UDder the control and supervision of a 



150 The Public Schools of Virginia 

single State Normal School Board. This was a step in the 
right direction. The next step is to place them all under the 
control and supervision of the State Board of Education as 
integral parts of the State System of Public Education. 

It is not wise policy to have two separate Boards, one con- 
trolling the certification and service of teachers, the other con- 
trolling their training. One board — the State Board of Educa- 
tion — should have charge of the three correlated functions — the 
training, certification, and service of teachers. In no other 
way can the necessary unity of work be maintained. 

(6). Admission of Students: The requirements for admis- 
sion to full normal work in the State Normal Schools for Women 
is graduation from a four-year high school or its equivalent 
with sixteen units of high-school credit. That requirement 
sets as high a standard as is found in the country. However, 
a high-school department is maintained at each institution, 
and the consequent overlapping of functions to some extent 
obscures a clear-cut requirement for admission. Below it is 
recommended that the high-school departments of the Normal 
Schools be abolished. 

On admission each student who is a candidate for free tuition 
is required to pledge herself to teach in the public schools of 
Virginia for at least two years after leaving the normal school. 
She is not, however, required to pledge herself to remain for 
the full normal course, nor to declare any such intention. As 
a matter of fact very many students enter the normal schools 
with the intention of remaining either for the high-school 
course only, or for one year only of the normal course, and 
purposing to leave after one or no years of normal instruction. 

The State certification system encourages such action, and 
in some cases the normal schools make special provision for 
such students. The certification system is considered below. 
Here it is sufficient to recommend that no student be admitted 
to the normal schools unless she is ready to declare her inten- 
tion of remaining for the length of the shortest professional 
course. No standards can be maintained when incomplete 
training is rewarded as at present. 

(c). Enrolments: In Table 64 are presented figures showing 
enrolments at the four State Normal Schools for Women during 



Training of Teachers 151 

the regular session of 1918-19. Two facts are clearly shown: 
(1) that high-school students constitute nearly one-third of 
the total enrolments, nearly one-third of the enrolment at 
Farmville, nearly one-half of the enrolment at Fredericksburg, 
an almost negligible proportion at Harrisonburg, and nearly 
thirty per cent at Radford; (2) that the total enrolments are 
far below the numbers necessary if the normal schools are to 
meet the demand for trained teachers at all satisfactorily. 

(d). Graduates: In Table 65 are presented figures showing 
the total number of graduates from the four State Normal 
Schools for Women from 1914 to 1918. Those figures show 
that nearly one-quarter of the total number of graduates of the 
past five years were not teaching in 1918-19. This does not 
mean that the normal schools are at fault. The reason is found 
in the low pay of teachers. Well educated teachers cannot 
afford to teach in Virginia. 

(e). High-school Departments: Virginia is one of the few 
States still maintaining high school departments in connection 
with the normal-school courses. The present practice is a 
survival of the days when there were few high schools in the 
State. The time has come when the practice should be aban- 
doned. Sooner or later the inevitable evils of its continuance 
would manifest themselves: (1) the lowering of normal-school 
standards; (2) a diminution or loss of that professional atmos- 
phere which should permeate the normal school ; (3) interference 
with the high-school development in the State; (4) expenditure 
of State funds for relatively high-grade normal instructors 
spending their time and energy on high-school teaching. 

Some of the evils are already manifest. Weak or lacking high 
schools are not the whole justification for pupils from eighty 
counties and twelve cities of the State enrolled last year in 
high school departments of Virginia Normal Schools. Rather 
one may say that high schools are weak or lacking in some com- 
munities because the State maintains high school departments 
at the State Normal Schools. Again one cannot say that a 
truly professional atmosphere can exist, normal-school stand- 
ards dominate, or State funds be advantageously spent when 
more than one-third of the total teaching time of the normal 
school staff of instructors is devoted to high-school work. (Cf. 



152 The Public Schools of Virginia 

Table 66). Finally, the demands of normal schools for larger 
accommodations and larger staffs must be considered with 
due regard to the fact that no small part of the accommodations 
already provided and no small part of the energies of the instruc- 
tional staffs are devoted to high-school pupils. 

(/). "College" courses in the Normal Schools: The normal 
schools of Virginia have never begun to supply the needs of the 
State for the training of elementary school teachers, either in 
point of number or with respect to the amount of professional 
training provided. Nor can they hope to do so within the next 
decade. Nevertheless, in 1916 the legislature and the State 
Normal School Board authorized the four State Normal Schools 
to train high-school teachers and to offer four-year "college" 
courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Educa- 
tion. 

This was a most unwise step which should be retraced at once 
The reasons against the present project are many and potent: 
(1). For many years the normal schools of Virginia will have 
enough and more than enough to do to provide well-trained 
teachers for the elementary schools of the State; (2) The State 
of Virginia cannot afford to maintain properly four "colleges" 
in addition to those already maintained; (3) The inevitable 
result of attempts to provide training for high school teachers 
in the normal schools is the neglect of the primary function 
for which the normal schools were founded and are maintained, 
the training of elementary school teachers — a tendency already 
observable in Virginia ; (4) Numerous other institutions already 
are maintained in, and partly by the State, which are infinitely 
better equipped and prepared to train high-school teachers; (5) 
College and university education, properly provided, is very 
expensive. The proper provisions for laboratories, libraries, 
and instructional staffs in several State institutions is very 
wasteful. Virginia already has too many separate colleges. 
(6) The normal-school-college project has already led to over- 
ambitious and misleading claims by some of the normal schools, 
e.g., one of the smallest in the State claiming to offer a collegi- 
ate education "equivalent to that required for graduation 
with the Bachelor's degree from standard colleges of the "A" 
class and from the average State University." 



Training of Teachers 153 

(g). Courses Offered: The normal schools offer three general 
departments of work: (1) high-school courses; (2) two-year 
normal courses for the training of elementary -school teachers; 
(3) four-year "college" courses for the training of high-school 
teachers. Of these the first and last should be abandoned. 

Elementary school teachers cannot be properly trained in 
two years at the normal school. The course should be extended 
at once to cover three years of instruction, and, as soon as may 
be possible, it should be extended to cover the four years now 
becoming standard. 

(h). Apprentice Teaching: Adequate provision for teacher 
training through supervised apprenticeship is a fundamental 
necessity for any normal school. Such provision is made at 
the Farmville Normal School through a training school main- 
tained by the institution itself and in the town schools. At the 
other normal schools apprentice-teaching is provided through 
cooperation with the city schools. The extent of the facilities 
available is shown in Table 68. 1 

The size of a normal school is always more or less conditioned 
by the amount of training facilities available. Those at present 
available for the four normal schools are reasonably adequate. 
However, the demand for trained teachers is far in excess of 
the number now trained in the normal schools, and the supply 
must be increased many fold. That means either an increase 
in the number of normal schools, or a great increase in the enrol- 
ments of the existing normal schools. In the judgment of the 
survey staff the second alternative should be adopted. The 
solution suggested is outlined below. 

The apprentice training of teachers should involve three 
steps: (1) closely supervised apprentice-teaching in a training 
school attached to and administered by the normal school under 
its own control; (2) further closely supervised teaching in the 
local public schools in co-operation with the local school authori- 
ties; (3) trial teaching under less closely directed supervision 
in schools of the surrounding territory. It is therefore recom- 
mended: (1) that each normal school be provided with a small 
training school to be conducted under its own auspices; (2) 

1 For the amount of observation and apprentice teaching now 
afforded, see Table 68. 



154 The Public Schools of Virginia 

that the apprentice training of teachers be so organized as to 
include three successive stages: (i) initial teaching under close 
supervision in the training school administered by the normal 
school, (ii) apprentice-teaching closely suprevised by the nor- 
mal school supervisors in the local public schools, and (iii) 
trial teaching in the public schools in the territory accessible 
to the normal school. 

Space available here does not permit a detailed analysis of 
plans for the administration of non-local apprentice-teaching. 
Normal school authorities are perfectly competent to organize 
such administration. Its advantages are found in the fact that : 

(1) the teacher training facilities of the normal schools may be 
extended so as to eliminate the needs of new normal schools; 

(2) prospective teachers receive training in real situations 
instead of being limited to the somewhat artificial situations 
now afforded; (3) the local schools are not overwhelmed with 
"practice teaching;" (4) the sphere of professional influence of 
the normal schools is enlarged; (5) some rural schools may 
receive at least partially trained teachers instead of teachers 
without training at all; (6) financial co-operation by local school 
authorities can be made to cover the increased cost of super- 
vision. 

(i). Instructors: In Tables 69 and 70 are presented figures 
showing the training and teaching experience of instructors 
in the four State Normal Schools for Women. As far as may 
be shown by such data the figures indicate that on the whole the 
instructional staffs of the normal schools are composed of men 
and women reasonably well qualified by training and experience. 

In Table 71 are presented figures showing the distribution 
of instructors' salaries. From those figures it appears that: 
(1) in 1917-18 no instructor received a salary of more than 
$2,600; (2) only 17 out of 115 instructors received salaries of 
more than $1,400; (3) thirty-eight instructors (about one-third 
of all) received salaries of less than $1,000. No normal school 
can perform its proper functions when one-third of its instruc- 
tional force receive salaries less than those paid to teachers in 
good public schools. Increased salary budgets are an immediate 
need for the normal schools of Virginia. 



Training of Teachers 155 

ii. COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

In addition to the four State Normal Schools for Women, 
the State makes provision for the training of teachers in the 
Department of Education of the University of Virginia, in the 
Department of Normal Training of the College of William and 
Mary, and in the Department of Agricultural Education of the 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 

(1). University of Virginia: In 1916-17 there were only 
forty-seven graduates of the University of Virginia teaching 
in the public schools of the State. How many thus engaged 
had attended the University but had not graduated it would 
be difficult to determine. At present the University makes 
its greatest contribution to the teaching force of the public 
schools through its Summer Session. 

The need of greater attention to the training of teachers was 
recognized in 1905 and a Department of Education was estab- 
lished. Through the members of that Department the Univer- 
sity has made great contributions to education in the schools 
of the State. As yet, however, the number of trained teachers 
prepared is relatively small, more because few students are 
willing to enter the profession of teaching at prevailing salaries 
than because of any fault of the University or of its Depart- 
ment of Education. 

At present the Department of Education is undergoing reor- 
ganization, and for that reason it is best here to suggest the 
lines of policy which should be followed rather than attempt to 
analyze its past or present status. 

(a). If the State University is to meet its duties for State 
service it must make proper provision for the training of high- 
school teachers and for the training of administrative and 
executive officers in the educational system of the State. It 
cannot do this unless its doors are open to women either through 
coeducation, as in most State Universities, or through a coor- 
dinate women's college of the University. 

(b). The University should limit itself to the training of 
high-school teachers and administrative officers, leaving the 
training of elementary-school teachers to the State Normal 
Schools and the training of vocational teachers to the Polytech- 
nic Institute. 



156 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(c). The University cannot train teachers without providing 
for supervised apprentice teaching either in its own training 
school or in co-operation with the public schools. Preferably 
both methods should be employed as suggested for the normal 
schools above. Plans are already formed. 

(d). Through extension courses the Department of Educa- 
tion should provide for the training of high school teachers and 
school administrators in service. 

(£). William and Mary College: Since 1906 the College of 
William and Mary has been almost entirely a State institution, 
operated by a board appointed by the Governor. It offers 132 
State scholarships to young men and women preparing to teach 
in the public schools of the State, and operates a Department 
of Normal Training essentially on a normal school basis, a 
"State Normal School Certificate" being granted on the "Teach- 
er's Diploma" given to the student completing one of the 
"Teachers' Courses." 

In 1916-17 there were 111 graduates of the college teaching 
in the public schools of the State, and a large number of those 
who had attended the college for one or more years but did not 
graduate. 

In 1918 the General Assembly passed an act providing for 
the admission of women so that the College of William and 
Mary is now the only higher institution financed and controlled 
by the State (a) providing normal-school training for men, and 
(b) providing really college work for women. 

Here again the Survey Staff finds an institution in a stage of 
transition forbidding any profitable analysis of past or present 
conditions. 

At the beginning of the next academic year the College of 
William and Mary will come under the new administration 
headed by a master school man. Whether or not the State is 
justified in maintaining or subsidizing this institution should 
be determined within the course of a few years. It is question- 
able that the institution is so situated as to permit it to operate 
satisfactorily as a State supported teacher-training institution. 1 



1 In 1917-18 the city schools of Williamsburg enrolled only 206 
white children. Training school facilities in the immediate vicinity 
of the college are very limited. 



Training of Teachers 157 

However, it is worth while to continue the present experiment 
until the policies of the new administration shall approve or 
disapprove themselves to the State. With the College of Wil- 
liam and Mary as an institution we are concerned here only 
with its teacher-training aspects. 

(3). Virginia Polytechnic Institute: The establishment of 
the Agricultural Education Department of the Virginia Poly- 
technic Institute is of such recent date that it has a future rather 
than a past or present. Its function is clearly defined. It is 
an education department whose sole function is to provide 
training for prospective teachers of agriculture and trades. It 
should be definitely restricted to that function. 

iii. — NORMAL TRAINING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 

Virginia is one of several States which have attempted to 
meet the demand for trained teachers by subsidizing normal 
training departments in certain high schools. Her experience 
also has been that found in other States — that the results were 
not satisfactory. For that reason the State Board has modified 
its policy and now provides that a graduate year of high-school 
work may be offered for normal training, $350 being appro- 
priated for each school giving such a course provided a similar 
sum be appropriated by the local community. 

As a matter of fact this provision has practically regulated 
the normal training in high schools out of existence, and fortu- 
nately so. The practice of maintaining such courses in high 
schools is thoroughly unsound and should be totally abandoned. 

iv. THE TRAINING OF COLORED TEACHERS 

The Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute at Petersburg 
is the only institution maintained by the State which provides 
training for colored teachers. That institution functions (a) 
as a central State high school, (b) as an industrial institute, 
and (c) as a State normal school for colored teachers. Its total 
enrolment is large (961 in 1917-18) and a large proportion of 
all its graduates are teaching (876 in 1917), but relatively a very 
small proportion of its students receive a training equivalent 
to two years beyond the high school, the standard recently set 
for graduation from the full professional course. 



158 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The administration of this institution is excellent. The 
teacher-training courses offered are as good as can be offered 
under the limitations found. The staff of instructors is in gen- 
eral excellent. The State is receiving rich returns from the 
small amount expended on this institution. 

The school suffers from many serious handicaps, especially 
from (1) the lack of colored high schools in the State, and the 
consequent poor preparation of many students who enter for 
normal training; (2) the limitations of the plant and its equip- 
ment; (3) inadequate financial support; (4) the lack of adequate 
facilities for training apprentice teachers. The State should 
provide for the renovation of the school plant and for more 
generous financial support at once. Better and more extensive 
training facilities should be afforded through co-operation with 
the public colored schools of Petersburg. 

In the near future, but after better provision is made at the 
Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, a second normal 
school for colored teachers should be established by the State. 

V. — SUMMER SCHOOLS AND SUMMER INSTITUTES 

For white teachers Summer Sessions are held at each of the 
four State normal schools, at the College of William and Mary, 
and at the University of Virginia. All are open to men and 
women and offer courses leading (a) to credit in regular normal 
school, college, or university courses, (b) to credit for the Ele- 
mentary Professional Certificate, (c) to credit toward the 
Special Certificate in high school subjects, and (d) to a review 
of the elementary branches in preparation for State Teachers' 
Examination for the First Grade and Second Grade Certificates. 
The review courses constitute no small part of the work done 
in these Summer Sessions and in reality the State thus maintains 
in its own higher institutions highly organized "cram" courses 
for State certificates. 

High school graduates who complete three summer courses 
of six weeks each may secure thus the Elementary "Professional" 
Certificate, as also may holders of First Grade Certificates, 
regardless of previous education and training. Thus the State 
institutions, through the State system of certification, are 
encouraged, if not forced, to bring their regular sessions into 



Training of Teachers 159 

very unfair competition with their summer sessions. Probably 
no other one thing has done more to destroy the dignity and 
value of really professional training for the teachers of Virginia. 

Professional study in the Summer Sessions of the State's 
higher institutions should aim at (a) a continuation of the train- 
ing of teachers in preparation with the same standards as in 
the regular annual sessions, and (b) supplementary training 
for teachers in service. At present, work in the summer sessions 
tends to become a substitute for rather than a supplement of 
professional training in the regular sessions. 

Defects in the present policy are (1) the time required for 
recognition is shorter than that in the regular session (eighteen 
weeks of summer session work receives for the Elementary 
Professional Certificate the same recognition as thirty-six weeks 
of work in the regular session) ; (2) inadequately prepared per- 
sons are admitted; (3) no practice work (practice teaching) is 
provided; (4) "cram" courses to prepare candidates for the 
State Teachers' Examinations are deliberately organized and 
fostered. 

Those defects may be remedied somewhat: (1) by requiring 
equal time equivalents for work done in the summer session 
and in the regular session; (2) by maintaining the same stan- 
dards for work in the summer session and in the regular session; 
(3) by maintaining the same standards for entrance to the sum- 
mer session and the regular session; (4) by eliminating all 
"review" courses designed to prepare candidates for the State 
teachers' examination. Changes in certificating standards are 
considered in the following chapter. Until they are modified 
the State's higher institutions must be handicapped in their 
summer session work. 

For colored teachers, Summer Sessions are maintained at 
the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, and at Hampton 
Institute. They are performing excellent service at a time when 
the State makes very inadequate provision for the training of 
colored teachers. 

In addition to the Summer Sessions considered above, four- 
week Teachers' Institutes have in the past been held for white 
teachers and for colored teachers in various parts of the State. 
During the summer of 1919 no such Institutes are held for 



160 The Public Schools of Virginia 

white teachers, but the practice is continued for colored teachers. 
Those institutes were almost entirely "cramming" schools. 
They have no justifiable place and should be abolished entirely 
or radically changed in character. 



RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the control and supervision of all normal schools, 
and of all teacher training departments of State institutions 
be centralized in the State Board of Education and that the 
several Boards at present exercising such control be abolished. 

2. That the high school departments of the four State Nor- 
mal Schools for Women be abolished. 

3. That the four State Normal Schools for Women be 
restricted to the training of elementary-school teachers, and 
that the law giving them the power to train high-school teachers, 
provide college courses, and grant college degrees be repealed. 

4. That a training school be established at each of the four 
normal schools for women not now maintaining such a school. 

5. That the scope of the apprentice teaching be extended 
so as to include (a) preliminary teaching under the closest 
supervision in the normal training school, (b) apprentice- teach- 
ing in the local city schools, and (c) trial teaching in non-local 
schools. 

6. That the full normal course for white teachers be extended 
to three years and at some future date to four years. 

7. That the Department of Education at the State Univer- 
sity be restricted to the training of high-school teachers, of 
executive and administrative school officers, and to graduate 
work in education. 

8. That the College of William and Mary be given a period 
of five years to approve or disapprove itself as an institution 
entitled to receive State support for the training of teachers. 



Training of Teachers 161 

9. That the Department of Agricultural Education at the 
Virginia Polytechnic Institute be restricted to the training of 
teachers of agriculture and industrial education. 

10. That normal training departments in high schools be 
abolished. 

11. That better financial provision be made for the Virginia 
Normal and Industrial Institute. 

12. That provision be made to extend the apprentice teach- 
ing of colored students through the co-operation of the Virginia 
Normal and Industrial Institute and the school authorities 
of Petersburg. 

13. That in due time a second normal school for colored 
teachers be established bv the State. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS 

THE system of certificating teachers is a fundamental factor 
affecting the character of the instruction provided in any 
State. Its importance in Virginia deserves a special chapter 
devoted to (i) an analysis of the present system, (ii) an analysis 
of the present teaching force with respect to the certificates 
held, and (iii) some suggestions for modification of the present 
system. 

i. THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF CERTIFICATION 

In accordance with recognized good policy and the best 
practice, all certificates to teach in Virginia are issued and 
controlled by the State Department of Education. 

Until the past year Virginia probably had the doubtful honor 
of issuing more kinds of certificates — about thirty-six separate 
varieties — than any other State. In 1918 that practice was 
abandoned and the number of different licenses to teach in the 
public schools of the State reduced to eight. They are described 
below. 

(1). Collegiate Professional Certificate: This is the highest 
grade of certificate provided, and is issued to graduates of a 
standard four-year college, university, or normal school, whose 
college work has included fifteen per cent, or nine session hours, 
devoted to purely professional study and practice teaching. 
It is a "blanket" certificate qualifying the holder to teach any 
subject or subjects in any grade of any public school in the State. 
It is valid for ten years and renewable for a similar period from 
time to time. 

{2). Collegiate Certificate: The requirements for this certifi- 
cate are the same as for the Collegiate Professional Certificate 
except that there is no requirement for professional study and 
practice. Its holder is entitled to the same privileges, but this 



Certification of Teachers 163 

certificate is valid for five years instead of ten, and renewable 
for ten if, in the meantime, the holder has met the requirement 
for professional study and practice teaching. 

(8). Normal Professional Certificate: This certificate is 
issued to graduates of the two-year professional course in a 
standard normal school based on the completion of a standard 
four-year high school course. It qualifies the holder to teach 
any grade or grades in the elementary school, and, if a graduate 
of the two-year course offered at Virginia State normal schools 
f or the special training of high school teachers, the holder may 
receive a special certificate permitting her to teach any or all 
subjects in the first two years of the high school course. The 
Normal Professional Certificate is valid for ten years and renew- 
able for a similar period from time to time. 

(4). Elementary Professional Certificate: This certificate is 
issued on (a) the completion, at an approved normal school, of 
one year of normal school work based on high-school gradua- 
tion, or (b) the completion of a prescribed Summer School 
course which may be completed in three summer sessions of 
six weeks each, or in two summer sessions of twelve weeks each 
— that course being open to the holders of First Grade Certifi- 
cates and to graduates of accredited high schools. The holder 
is authorized to teach in the elementary schools only. The 
certificate is valid for six years, and is renewable for a similar 
period from time to time. 

(5). Special Certificate: A Special Certificate may be issued 
(a) to persons who have completed two years of standard col- 
lege work, (b) to applicants who have completed, in an approved 
summer school, a number of college grade courses required for 
a particular subject, (c) to applicants passing a satisfactory 
examination in one or more high school subjects, and (d) to 
persons presenting evidence of adequate preparation in such 
special subjects as agriculture, domestic arts, trades, manual 
training, drawing, music, etc. Special Certificates granted 
under the first three conditions mentioned above (a,b,c) author- 
ize the holders to teach in high schools the subjects specified 
on the face of the certificate. Special Certificates for teaching 
such special subjects as agriculture, etc., (d, above) authorize 



164 The Public Schools of Virginia 

the holders to teach in elementary or high school or both, 
according to the character of their training, and the limitations 
set in the certificate by the State certificating officer. Such 
certificates are valid for six years and are renewable for a simi- 
lar period from time to time. 

(6). First Grade Certificate: This certificate may be secured 
in any of three ways : (a) by passing a satisfactory examination 
in reading, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, geography, United 
States History, English History, the history of Virginia, civics, 
physical geography or general science, drawing, algebra, English 
classics, agriculture, physiology and hygiene, and the theory 
and practice of teaching, (b) by the completion of the "normal 
training" courses in certain high schools and other institutions, 
or (c) by graduation from an accredited high school and the 
completion of the first twelve weeks work of the prescribed 
eighteen weeks' Summer School course, provided the work is 
done in two separate summer sessions of six weeks each. The 
applicant must in any case be at least nineteen years old and 
must have had at least seven months successful experience. 
Applicants under conditions (a) above must have had at least 
two years of high school training or its equivalent. Under con- 
ditions (b) or (c) graduation from an accredited high school is 
required. This certificate permits the holder to teach in the 
elementary schools only. It is valid for five years and renew- 
able for a similar period from time to time. 

(7). Second Grade Certificate: This is the lowest grade of 
"certificate" issued and may be secured (a) by passing a satis- 
factory examination in reading, spelling, arithmetic, grammar 
and composition, United States history, Virginia history, geo- 
graphy, civics, drawing, physiology and hygiene, and teaching 
methods; (b) by the completion of the "normal training" course 
in certain high schools and other institutions; (c) by graduation 
from an accredited high school and the completion of the first 
six weeks work of the prescribed Summer School Course. The 
applicant must be at least eighteen years of age, but no other 
requirements are specified, so that persons with less than a full 
elementary education may be eligible. This certificate permits 
the holder to teach in the elementary school only. It is valid 
for two years and may be renewed once only for a second period 
of two years. 



Certification of Teachers 165 

(8). Local Permit: This is not a recognized "certificate" but 
merely an official authorization permitting a division superin- 
tendent on his written request to employ in an emergency a 
person who does not hold a State teacher's certificate. It may 
be terminated at the pleasure of the division superintendent, 
and in no case is it valid for a period lasting longer than the 
last day of the June following its date of issue. 

Further discussion of these certificates is reserved for section 
iii of this chapter, following an analysis of the present distribu- 
tion of certificates. In anticipation, however, it may be noted: 
(a) that three of the licenses to teach call for a general education 
not higher than the completion of two years of high school ; (b) 
that five of the eight licenses to teach call for no professional 
training; (c) that most of the licenses to teach are rather general 
in their application; (d) that practically all licenses except the 
Second Grade Certificate are valid without real limitations of 
time. These facts are readily seen from Table 75. 

ii. THE DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFICATES 

In Table 72 are presented figures showing the proportions of 
teachers in Virginia holding various types of certificates in 
1918-19. Those figures show several important facts. 

(1). Of all white teachers in the State about twenty-three 
per cent, (or one in every four or five) are entitled to hold what 
may be considered at all satisfactory certificates, i.e., certifi- 
cates representing more than one year of education or profes- 
sional training above the high school. The great majority of 
those teachers are employed in the schools of cities or large 
towns. 

(2). Of colored teachers about three per cent, hold certifi- 
cates of the character suggested above. Of all teachers (white 
and colored combined) about fifteen per cent, hold certificates 
of those types. 

(3). About one fourth of white teachers and about the same 
proportion of colored teachers hold Elementary Professional 
Certificates. A great many of those certificates have been 
received on the basis of eighteen weeks of Summer School work 



166 The Public Schools of Virginia 

without even high school training, since until recently it has 
been possible and usual for holders of First Grade Certificates 
without any high school training to secure the Elementary 
"Professional" Certificate on the basis of Summer School work. 
In the conversion of old certificates under the new plan all 
Summer School Professional Certificates for elementary grades 
were converted into the new "Elementary Professional Certifi- 
cates." This accounts in great measure for the relatively large 
number of Elementary "Professional" Certificates — profes- 
sional in name, but not always indicative of real professional 
training. This is particularly true of the Elementary Profes- 
sional Certificates held by the majority of colored teachers. 

(4). About thirty per cent, of all white teachers hold First 
Grade or Second Grade Certificates. It is unfortunate that 
those euphemistic names were applied to these certificates since 
they are essentially low grade. Practically all now in existence 
were granted when no high school training was required to 
secure either. 

(5). About forty-four per cent of all colored teachers hold 
First Grade or Second Grade Certificates of the character 
described above. 

(6). Notwithstanding the large number of the low grade 
(First Grade and Second Grade) certificates, one in every eight 
or nine white teachers, and one in every four or five colored 
teachers were teaching in 1918-19 on the basis of Local Permits. 
Most of those were persons who had taken the examinations 
for certificates and failed. Needless to say, they are as a whole 
woefully without qualifications for teaching. 

It is obvious that a school system which employs about one- 
third of its teachers on the basis of minimum grade and emer- 
gency licenses, and in which more than one-half of the teachers 
hold certificates representing at best practically no professional 
training, is not prepared to do its work properly. It is, in fact, 
prepared to do great damage to the interests of the children of 
Virginia. Poor teaching represents not merely a negative loss : 
it represents a positive damage to the State and her citizens. 

It should be clearly understood that the present situation 
is not the result of the present system of teacher certification 



Certification of Teachers 167 

which was introduced only during the past year. Nearly all of 
the present certificates were issued under the former system 
and on former standards. Further, in the change from the old 
to the new system, common justice necessitated provision that 
no teacher holding an older certificate should suffer by the 
change. The present situation must be charged, in part, against 
the older system, but in much larger measure against factors 
such as inadequate salaries, which no system of certification 
could offset. 

The point cannot be raised that the figures presented in 
Table 72 represent the situation at its worst in an "off year," 
when the supply of teachers was very seriously curtailed, and, 
therefore, that the normal situation is really better than the 
figures presented would indicate. It is true that the year 1918- 
19 was an "off year" and that it was very difficult to secure 
teachers of any sort. It is also true, however, that an analysis 
of teachers' certificates in 1916-17, or 1917-18 shows a situation 
even less satisfactory. Thus the figures given in Table 74 show 
that over one-half of all white teachers and about two-thirds 
of all colored teachers held certificates not higher than First 
Grade in 1917-18. 1 As a matter of fact the "scaling up" method 
employed in the conversion of old certificates into new in 1918- 
19 gave a much better appearance to the situation in that year 
than was justified by the real facts of the case. 

iii. — SUGGESTIONS FOR MODIFICATION 

The adoption of the present plan for teacher certification 
marked a note-worthy step in advance. Its recent adoption 
precludes any judgment of its efficacy on the basis of experience. 
Experience in other States, however, and a priori 1 reasoning 
suggest that the new system involves serious defects which 
should be remedied: 

(1). All certificates tend to be of a "blanket" character. 
This is particularly true of the Collegiate and Collegiate Pro- 
fessional Certificates which permit the holders to teach not 
only any high school subject in which he may or may not have 



» For the situation in 1916-17 see page 140 of the Report of the 
(Virginia) Superintendent of Public Instruction 1916-17. 



168 The Public Schools of Virginia 

been properly trained, but also to teach in the elementary 
school whether or not he has received any professional training 
in that field. Instances are not lacking where the holders of 
such certificates have been called upon to teach subjects which 
they have never studied and the present system of certification 
permits such practice. All certificates for high school teachers 
should show on the face thereof the subject or subjects which 
the teacher is qualified to teach. 

(2). The terminology of present certificates is in many 
respects thoroughly misleading. So-called "First Grade" cer- 
tificates are really about sixth grade, and so-called "Second 
Grade" certificates are really about seventh grade. Further 
the so-called "Elementary Professional" certificate calls for 
very little professional work. 

(3). The privileges granted to holders of low grade certifi- 
cates differ so little from the privileges granted to holders of 
high grade certificates that little incentive is afforded to the 
former to prepare themselves for higher grade certificates. 

(4). The period of validity for low grade certificates differs 
so little, if at all in some cases, from the period of validity for 
high grade certificates, that little incentive is offered to their 
holders to prepare themselves for higher grade certificates. 

(5). The privileges and long validity of non-professional 
ertificates discount professional training, and seriously handicap 
the work of really professional training in the normal schools. 
For all practical purposes there is little incentive to persons to 
attend the normal schools for their full course, since the oppor- 
tunities and rewards of certificates easily obtainable otherwise 
are practically as great as for two or three years of study and 
expense at a normal school. 

(6). The present certificating system sets altogether too 
high a premium on preparation at a summer school. As a result 
of the present plan, very many persons attend summer schools 
merely for the purpose of taking advantage of the courses there 
deliberately planned to cram applicants for certificates by exam- 
ination. No practice teaching is afforded in the summer schools. 

(7). The present certificating system is based on the "verti- 
cal" plan whereby certificates are graded almost solely with 



Certification of Teachers 169 

reference to the kind and amount of training and education 
received. Better practice calls for a basic classification of certifi- 
cates on the "horizontal" plan according to the type of teach- 
ing to be authorized and a supplementary classification on the 
"vertical" plan according to the amount and character of the 
training and education of the holder. According to this system 
there should be three basic groups of teachers' certificates — (1) 
those for teaching in the high school; (2) those for teaching in 
the elementary school ; and (3) those for special fields of teach- 
ing such as kindergarten, drawing, etc. — and different classes 
of certificates such as (a) professional or class A; (b) class B; 
(c) class C. A suggested scheme for such a system in Virginia 
is outlined in Table 76. 

(8). No certificating system can stand by itself . Its efficacy 
in maintaining standards and encouraging the development 
of a properly qualified teaching force is conditioned by the 
maintenance of a proper relation between the certificating 
system, the institutions for teacher training, the teachers' 
tenure of office, teachers' salaries, and teachers' pensions. The 
present certificating plan is not properly related to the work of 
the normal schools and has no official relation at least to the 
other factors mentioned. 

To overcome the defects of the present system a plan of 
reorganization is suggested below and summarized in Table 76. 

(i). The system should involve basically a classification of 
certificates according to the classes of teaching to be performed, 
and secondarily according to the amount and character of the 
holders' qualifications. Hence three groups of certificates are 
recommended: (1) for high school teachers, (2) for elementary 
school teachers; (3) for teachers of special branches. 1 Each of 
those groups of certificates should involve three classes: (a) 
the professional or class A certificate, granted on the basis of 
the entire amount of academic and professional training 
demanded for fully trained teachers, (b) the class B certificate 
granted on the basis of somewhat advanced but not complete 
educational training, (c) the class C certificate, granted on the 



1 The introduction of the six-three-two or the five-three-three 
organization would involve a four-fold classification. See Chapter XVI. 



170 The Public Schools of Virginia 

basis of at least one year of study beyond the high school or its 
equivalent. All other licenses to teach should receive no "cer- 
tificate" rank, but be considered merely as permits to teach in 
an emergency situation after all other grades of teachers have 
been exhausted. For holders of present certficates a period of 
time should be granted to reach the standards thus set, or lose 
present standing. That period may well be not less than five 
years or more than the period set for the validity of the certifi- 
cates now held. 

(ii). Every certificate issued should bear on its face an indi- 
cation of the grades or subjects which it authorizes the holder 
to teach. Each Secondary (high school) Certificate and Special 
Certificate should always specify the grades and subjects which 
the holder is qualified to teach. 

(iii). No certificate, when originally issued, should be valid 
for more than three years. After the holder has shown his fit- 
ness to teach, it is proper to renew the certificate for a longer 
period, but in no case should the holder of a low grade certifi- 
cate be permitted to secure a second renewal without increased 
qualifications. 

(iv). The holders of high grade certificates should receive 
recognition of superior qualifications through higher salaries, 
more secure tenure of office, and through provision for retire- 
ment pensions. No holder of low grade certificates should be 
entitled to tenure of office or retirement pensions. 

Details of the proposed modifications in the system of certifi- 
cation cannot be discussed here. Essentials are indicated in 
suggestive form in Table 76. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

That the system of teacher certification in Virginia be 
remodeled so as to correct existing defects, and to provide for 
the factors suggested in this chapter. 



CHAPTER X 

SECONDARY EDUCATION 

IN 1916, according to the figures of the Federal Bureau of 
Education, Virginia stood thirty-second among the States 
of the Union with respect to the proportion of the total popu- 
lation attending high school and thirty-fourth with respect to 
the proportion of pupils enrolled attending high school. It 
must be remembered, however, that the large negro population 
in Virginia renders any such comparison misleading, since the 
economic and social status of the negroes precludes any very large 
negro enrolment in the high school even if ample facilities were 
provided. Among the Southern States Virginia easily stands in 
the first place with respect to the proportions of the total popu- 
lation or of the school enrolment attending the high school. 1 

i. — HIGH SCHOOL ENROLMENTS 

In Table 78 are presented figures showing for 1917-18 the 
number of high schools of various classes in Virginia. Those 
figures show that there were 665 schools in the State offering 
some amount and some kind of high school work in 1917-18. 
Of these only 227 (about one-third) were four-year accredited 
high schools, 184 (about 28 per cent) were three or four year 
unaccredited schools, and 194 (about three-tenths) were schools 
offering less than three years of high school work. There can 
be little question that too many weak schools are attempting 
to provide high school education in Virginia. 

In Table 80 are presented figures showing for 1918-19 the 
number of "high schools" of various sizes. Those figures show 
that 157 schools (nearly three-tenths of all) had a total enrol- 
ment each of not more than fifteen pupils. Seventy-three of 
those schools had each not more than ten pupils. 

The evils of the situation are obvious: (1) such schools are 
always very expensive if proper instruction is provided; (2) 



1 Cf. Table 77 and page 23 of the Report of the (United States) 
Commission of Education, 1917. 



172 The Public Schools of Virginia 

ordinarily proper instruction is not provided; (3) attempts 
to provide high school instruction in such small schools almost 
invariably lead to one or both of two evils (a) the unjustifiable 
use of school funds for a few upper-grade children at the expense 
of children in the elementary school, (b) encroachment on the 
teacher's attention to the elementary grade pupils. 

Those evils are common in the rural districts of Virginia. 
How can they be remedied? They may be remedied: (1) by 
refusing to permit State funds to be used for high-school pur- 
poses unless the enrolment appears large enough to warrant its 
maintenance (e.g. not less than ten pupils in the eighth grade) ; 
(2) by requiring higher standards for recognition; (3) by a reor- 
ganization of the school system as recommended in Chapter 
XVI. 

In Tables 81-82 are presented figures showing the enrolments 
in various high-school grades. These two facts are especially 
noteworthy. 

(1) There is a great amount of "dropping out" after the 
first high school grade, particularly in the non-city schools 
where only nine per cent of the boys, eleven per cent of the 
girls, and ten per cent of all pupils are enrolled in the last grade 
of the high schools. 

(2) There is a noteworthy difference between the enrolment 
of boys and girls, particularly in the cities where in the fourth 
grade of the high school the number of girls in attendance is 
about double that of boys. 

Both of these phenomena are common throughout the coun- 
try, but in few cases are they found in such an aggravated form. 
What are the reasons? It is to be expected, of course, that 
many pupils will leave school before the completion of the 
course, and it is but natural, perhaps, that economic and social 
forces should influence the withdrawal of boys earlier and more 
heavily than the withdrawal of girls. Other factors, however, 
are here involved. In the judgment of the survey staff contri- 
buting factors are: (a) the lack of a compulsory attendance law 
which would serve to build up habits and encourage attend- 
ance; (b) the existence of numerous anaemic schools which 
cannot possibly provide proper stimuli for secondary education 
and sometimes may actually discourage further schooling; (c) 



Secondary Education 173 

the rigidity of many curricula; (d) the character of the studies 
offered (see below); (e) poor teaching; (f) an ill-adapted form 
of school organization. 

Corresponding remedies are: (a) the passage of a real compul- 
sory attendance law (see Chapter III); (b) the elimination of 
weak schools through consolidation (see Chapter XV); (c-d) 
greater flexibility in the curricula and improvements in the 
courses of study (see below in this chapter); (e) improved 
teaching (see Chapters VII-IX and below in this chapter); (f) 
a reorganization of the school system as recommended in chap- 
ter XVI. 

ii. — THE TEACHING FORCE 

The quality of the teaching force of any high school system 
is best judged by the character of the education and training 
which the teachers have received. Accepted minimum stand- 
ards throughout the country are graduation from an approved 
four-year college, and proper standards include some amount of 
professional training either as a part of the under-graduate 
work or supplementing it. 

What is the situation in Virginia? 

In Table 83 are presented figures showing that in the school 
year 1916-17 1 more than one-third of the high-school teachers 
in the State had received less than two years of college education. 
Table 85 shows that for 1918-19 only a little more than one 
quarter of the non-city high-school teachers had received four 
years of college education and that nearly fifteen per cent, had 
received no regular education above the high school. There 
can be no question that as a body, particularly in the non-city 
districts, high school teachers in Virginia are not well qualified 
for their work. 

The principle difficulties of the present situation are three: 
(1) numerous small and weak high schools cannot afford to 
secure the services of well trained teachers; (2) with very few 
exceptions the salaries paid to high school teachers are insuffi- 
cient to justify men and women spending four years for a rela- 



1 This year is purposely chosen to avoid the peculiar war-time 
conditions later. 



174 The Public Schools of Virginia 

tively expensive college education; (3) heretofore colleges in 
the State have failed to provide properly for the professional 
training of high-school teachers. 

It is further to be noted that Virginia has had to depend on 
out-of-State colleges for over one-fourth of her high-school 
teachers. In Table 84 are presented figures showing the source 
of supply for high-school teachers having received at least two 
two years of college education. That table shows several facts: 
(1) that State-aided colleges in 1916-17 supplied less than one- 
sixth of college trained high-school teachers and less than one- 
tenth of all high-school teachers in the State ; (2) that privately 
supported colleges in Virginia supplied nearly one-naif of all 
college-trained high-school teachers and over one-third of all 
high-school teachers in the State; (3) that out-of-the-State 
colleges furnished one-fourth of all college trained high-school 
teachers, and one-fourth of all high school teachers in 1916-17. 

Remedies are to be found in (a) the elimination of high-school 
work in many small schools, and consolidation; (b) increasing 
the salaries of high school teachers; (c) better provision for the 
professional training of high-school teachers in the colleges of 
the State; (d) modification of the present system of certification 
(cf. chapter IX). 

In Table 63 are presented figures showing for 1918-19 the 
average annual salaries of high-school teachers in Virginia. 
Those figures show that in non-city high schools more than one- 
half of the teachers received an annual salary of less than $600 
and that in city high schools one-tenth of the teachers received 
less than $600 per annum. Such salaries offer little inducement 
to men and women to spend four years and a condiderable 
amount of money in a College education for the purpose of 
high school teaching. 

iii. — SECONDARY-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

At present plans of the State Board of Education and of the 
State Department of Education involve a radical reorganiza- 
tion of the secondary school system. According to the new 
regulations the older triple standards of First-class, Second- 
class, and Third-class high schools is abandoned and for the 
future only two classes of high schools are to be standardized; 



Secondary Education 175 

(a) junior high schools, including grades seven, eight, and nine, 
and (b) senior high schools, including grades eight, nine, ten 
and eleven. 

The problem of reorganization is considered in some detail 
in Chapter XVI. Here it may be stated, however, that in the 
judgment of the survey staff that plan, though aiming at desira- 
ble changes in school organization, is fundamentally wrong in 
two respects: (1) the division of grades is unsound; 1 (2) practical 
school administration requires a clearer distinction between the 
junior high school and the senior high school, and, as soon as 
possible, the elimination of the overlapping. Until the present 
school organization is converted into the new organization three 
types of secondary schools must be recognized; (a) the junior 
high school, (b) the senior high school, and (c) the present 
four-year high school. The Board's plan provides for (a) and 
(c) but leaves (b) unprovided for. Ultimately (c) should disap- 
pear. The plan proposed by the State Board fosters its perpet- 
uation. 

iv. — COURSE OF STUDY 

At present writing the plans for reorganization are so imcom- 
plete that it is impossible to make any thorough analysis. What 
the final plans will be or what their effect may be cannot be 
prophesied. 

An analysis of some existing conditions, however, present 
certain facts which should be recognized in reorganizing the 
secondary-school course of sudy. 

In 1918-19 there were but five junior high schools in operation 
in the State (three in the cities of Richmond and Roanoke, 
and two in non-city districts) so that practically all interpreta- 
tion of existing conditions must involve primarily the four year 
high school course. 

For high schools organized with four grades the State Board 
sets the following curriculum standards: Total number of "units" 2 
required for graduation 16, distributed as follows — English 4, 
Mathematics (for non-vocational courses) 2, History (American 

1 See chapter XVI. 

■ "A unit means a recitation period of at least forty minutes, five 
times a week, for at least thirty-six weeks, devoted to the completion 
of an assigned amount of subject matter." 



176 The Public Schools of Virginia 

History and Civics) 1, Science (Agriculture with laboratory 
for rural schools, and Home Economics for girls recommended, 
provided a teacher of appropriate qualifications be secured) 
1, Electives 8. 

This program is very flexible and cannot seriously handicap 
any high school. The only points of doubtful validity are the 
requirement of four full units (one fourth of the total high- 
school course) in English, and the requirement of two full units 
(one-eighth of the total course) in mathematics. In the judg- 
ment of the survey staff the requirements for English should not 
exceed three units (the standard set by the Committee of the 
National Education Association on the Articulation of High 
School and College) and the absolute requirements for mathe- 
matics should be eliminated. 

In Table 86 are presented figures showing the numbers and 
per cents of pupils engaged in various high school studies in 
1918-19 together with figures showing the numbers and pro- 
portions of schools in which pupils studied various subjects. 
Those figures show several important facts. 

(1). They show that in 1918-19 three-fourths of all pupils 
in non-city high schools, three-fifths of all pupils in city high 
schools and nearly seven-tenths of all high school pupils were 
studying algebra in 1918-19. To say the least, it is doubtful 
that such a large proportion of pupils can profitably study that 
subject. The common requirement of algebra for all pupils in 
the first year of high school work has no justification. 

(2). Nearly two-thirds of all pupils in non-city high schools, 
nearly one-half of all pupils in city high schools, and nearly 
three-fifths of all high school pupils were engaged in the study 
of Latin. For this there is no valid reason. 

(3). Only fifteen per cent of all pupils in non-city high- 
schools were engaged in the study of agriculture. 

(4). Only eight per cent of all pupils in non-city high- 
schools, about twenty per cent of all pupils in city high schools, 
and thirteen per cent of all high school pupils were engaged in 
the study iof home economics. 

(5). All other practical arts or vocational subjects, except 
some commercial studies, engaged the attention of an insignifi- 
cant proportion of high school pupils. 



Secondary Education 177 

(6). Only 6.2 per cent of all high schools provide any com- 
mercial studies and only 1.5 per cent of all high schools provide 
manual arts courses. 

All in all present practice in the Virginia high schools is highly 
academic and makes little provision for the boy or girl whose 
interest and capacities are adapted to practical arts work. It 
is not at all improbable that the failure to make proper pro- 
vision for non-academic studies in the high schools of Virginia 
explains in part the relatively small number of boys enrolled 
and the great amount of "dropping out" to which attention 
was called in an earlier part of this chapter. There is no doubt 
that the present practice calls for modification in two related 
respects (a) greater flexibility in the program of the high school 
and (b) the introduction of more practical arts studies. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the school system be reorganized as recommended 
in Chapter XVI. 

2. That no state aid be granted to high schools having less 
than ten pupils enrolled in the eighth grade, provided that the 
State Board of Education be permitted to authorize such aid 
where consolidation or transportation is impracticable. 

3. That the standards of certification for high school teachers 
be modified as recommended in Chapter IX. 

4. That better provision be made for non-academic studies 
in the secondary schools. 

5. That the minimum requirements for graduation from an 
accredited school be modified so as to prescribe three units of 
English, one unit of social science, one unit of natural science, 
and to require the completion of at least three units of related 
sequential work in some one field in addition to English. 



CHAPTER XI 

PRACTICAL ARTS EDUCATION 

ITNTIL very recently traditional influences tended to limit 
public education in Virginia to those studies in which the 
intellectual and cultural elements dominated almost, if not 
quite, to the exclusion of practical arts and vocational educa- 
tion. Not until within the past decade or so was any beginning 
made to extend the scope of education beyond the intellectual, 
academic, or cultural, and even at present it cannot be said 
that more than initial steps have been taken to place practical 
arts education on its proper footing in the State. 

In this chapter an attempt is made to analyze the present 
status and to outline the proper development of practical arts 
and vocational education in Virginia. 

i. — AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 

In spite of the rapid development of shipping industries on 
the coast, of commerce and manufacture in the cities, and of 
mining in the mountain districts, Virginia remains predomi- 
nantly an agricultural State. Thus Table 1 shows that seventy- 
two of the one hundred counties of the State are 100 per cent 
rural and that about ninety counties are more than two-thirds 
rural. Thus also Table 3 shows that in 1910 about forty-five 
per cent of all persons engaged in gainful occupations were 
engaged in the pursuit of agriculture. Further Table 1 shows 
that in 1917 more than three-fifths of the entire population of 
the State lived in the open country or in communities of less 
than 100 population. 

It cannot be said that on the whole agriculture in Virginia 
is carried on efficiently and in accordance with the best modern 
methods. Rather it must be acknowledged that on the whole 
lack of the most elementary principles of agriculture is costing 
the State hundreds of thousand of dollars annually in misdi- 
rected labor, in sub-capacity production, and through impov- 
erishment of the soil. 



Practical Arts Education 179 

What has public education done in Virginia to reduce that 
loss and to improve the agricultural production of the State? 

Prior to 1918 the State had taken three steps through the 
public schools to encourage agricultural education: (1) it had 
provided for the introduction of gardening and agriculture into 
the program of the fifth, sixth, and seventh elementary grades. 
(2) it had provided for agriculture in the high-school course of 
study; (3) it had provided for the establishment of ten "con- 
gressional district" agricultural high schools. 

(1). Agriculture in the Elementary Grades. The State Course 
of Study for Elementary Schools provides for school gardening 
in the fifth grade, and for elementary agriculture in the sixth 
and seventh grades. Excellent recommendations and sugges- 
tions are made, but — in nine-tenths of the schools no attention 
whatever is paid to those recommendations and suggestions. 
Provision for teaching agriculture in the elementary school is 
for the most part confined to the printed page of the State 
Course of Study. 1 

(2). Agriculture in the High Schools. In 1918-19 about forty- 
five per cent of the high-schools of Virginia had courses in agri- 
culture enrolling pupils, and 2,337 (15 per cent) of all pupils 
enrolled in non-city high schools were engaged in its study." 
For the most part those courses were extremely superficial, if 
for no other reason, because not one high school in ten engaged 
a teacher even moderately trained for the purpose. On the 
whole the teaching of agriculture in the ordinary high school of 
Virginia cannot be considered otherwise than a failure as far as 
practical training for agricultural occupations is concerned. 

(3). High School Departments of Vocational Agriculture: By 
an act of the General Assembly in 1918 the provisions of the 
federal Smith-Hughes Act were accepted and the State Board 
of Education was designated to act as the State Board of Voca- 
tional Education. In accordance with that act provision was 
made for the training of teachers of agriculture at the Virginia 
Polytechnic Institute, for the establishment of vocational agri- 
culture in high schools, and for the appointment of a State 
(Department) supervisor of vocational agriculture. The old 

« See Table 36. 
• See Table 86. 



180 The Public Schools of Virginia 

"congressional district" agricultural high schools were converted 
into local high schools operating departments of vocational 
agriculture, and such departments were established in eight 
other high schools. In 1918 eighteen high schools were oper- 
ating departments of vocational agriculture and enrolled 261 
"vocational" pupils. 

For agricultural education the ground has barely been broken 
in Virginia, and much remains to be done if the real needs of 
the State are to be met. The main lines of development should 
be: (a) actual carrying out of the recommendations of the State 
Course of Study for the teaching of the elements of agriculture 
in grades six and seven, preferably in the junior high school 
recommended in Chapter XVI ; (b) provision for really effective 
instruction in agriculture in every rural high school; (c) pro- 
vision for the extended development of intensively vocational 
departments of agriculture (Smith-Hughes type) in at least 
one high school in each county of the State; (d) provision for 
the training of competent teachers of agriculture. 

The provision for training in elementary agriculture in grades 
six and seven (junior high school) is necessary because the great 
majority of pupils will never progress further. Courses in agri- 
culture in the ordinary rural high schools should provide a 
basis of general agricultural information available to all pupils 
in whatever fields their major interests may lie. In the voca- 
tional department of agriculture in selected high schools the 
courses should be designed to develop intensively vocational 
ability. Without provision for competent teachers agricul- 
tural education in any of the phases mentioned cannot become 
effective. 

ii. — DOMESTIC ARTS EDUCATION 

Prior to 1918 Virginia had taken three steps for the develop- 
ment of domestic-arts education in the public schools: (1) it 
had introduced into the Elementary School Course of Study 
instruction in sewing in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, and 
instruction in cooking in the sixth and seventh grades; (2) it 
had introduced cooking and sewing into the program of the 
high schools; (3) it had made provision for courses in "the 
domestic arts sciences" in the "congressional districts" agri- 
cultural high schools previously described. 



Practical Arts Education 181 

(1). Domestic Arts in the Elementary Grades: The State 
Course of Study for Elementary Schools makes excellent recom- 
mendations for instruction in sewing and cooking in the upper 
elementary grades. For all but a few schools in the State, how- 
ever, the project ends in those printed recommendations. Not 
one white school in ten even pretends to provide the instruction 
recommended or any other instruction in the domestic arts. 
Only in colored schools has any real attempt been made to pro- 
vide such instruction. Due largely to the efforts of the super- 
vising industrial teachers for colored schools the majority of 
those schools have made serious attempts to provide instruc- 
tion in domestic arts and have made very commendable pro- 
gress, in spite of an almost prohibitive lack of necessary equip- 
ment and supplies. Domestic arts instruction in white elemen- 
tary schools for the State as a whole has been a conspicuous 
failure. In colored elementary schools it has had a most prom- 
ising beginning. 

(2). Domestic Arts in the Regular High Schools: According 
to the high school returns for 1918-19 less than twenty per cent 
of the high schools of the State had pupils enrolled in domestic 
arts courses and only 3,259 high school pupils (less than one- 
fifth of the girls) enrolled were engaged in those courses. In 
non-city high schools only 11.5 per cent of the girls and in the 
city schools about 30.0 of the girls were engaged in the study 
of domestic arts. 1 The record of graduates of the public high 
schools of Virginia 2 shows that by far the greatest proportion 
of girls pass through the high school without any contact with 
domestic-arts instruction, particularly in non-city districts. 

(3). Special Provisions for Domestic Arts Education: Prior 
to the acceptance of the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act a 
special intensive form of domestic arts instruction was provided 
in the "congressional district" agricultural high schools. By 
the acceptance of the provisions of that act the State made it 
possible (a) to secure funds for the training and salaries of 
special domestic-arts teachers; (b) to secure the services of a 
special supervisor of domestic-arts education; (c) to make better 

« See Table 86. 

• State Board of Education Bulletin, July 1918, vol. I, no. 1, 
Supplement no. 1. 



182 The Public Schools of Virginia 

provision for domestic-arts education in the high schools of the 
State. The College of William and Mary and the State Normal 
School at Harrisonburg have been designated institutions for 
the special training of domestic-arts teachers and a State 
(Department) supervisor of domestic-arts education (part- 
time service only) has been appointed. 

As with agricultural education it can only be said that a 
beginning has been made for effective instruction in the domestic 
arts. Future development must depend on the extent to which 
are carried out effectively the following projects: (1) the actual 
carrying out of a real program of domestic-arts education in 
grades six and seven (preferably in the junior high school 1 ); 
(2) better provision for general courses in domestic arts in the 
regular high school; (3) provision for intensive courses in domes- 
tic arts in selected high schools according to the provisions of 
the Smith-Hughes act; (4) provision for the training of compe- 
tent teachers. 

There can be no justification for the present neglect of 
domestic arts education in the great majority of public schools 
in Virginia. It should not be possible for a girl to pass through 
the school system without some contact with the arts and 
sciences which must in greater or less degree condition her 
success as a homemaker. 

iii. — COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 

Commercial education is of course possible, and probably 
desirable, only in the larger high schools of the State. At 
present it is provided in some degree in thirty-three schools of 
the State and in 1918-10 there were reported 1,555 high-school 
pupils engaged in the study of commercial branches. 2 In that 
year about twelve per cent of all pupils in city high schools were 
reported engaged in such studies. 2 

Apparently southern cities in general have not given as much 
attention to commercial education as have cities in other parts 
of the country, the median per cent of high school pupils 

> Cf. Chapter XVI. 

s Those figures represent gross enrolments, each pupil being counted 
si many times as he or she was registered in different commercial 
est. sa etNduenrolmcnts are considerably less. 



Practical Arts Education 183 

engaged in commercial studies being about fifteen for southern 
cities (population 10,000 or over) as compared with a median of 
thirty-three for cities of the same size in other parts of the coun- 
try. 1 In Virginia some provision for commercial education 
should be made in every city and somewhat extensive provision 
should be made in Alexandria, Charlottesville, Danville, Lynch- 
burg, Newport News, Norfolk, Petersburg, Portsmouth, Rich- 
mond and Roanoke. The general need is indicated by the fact 
that in 1916 (latest available figures) there were eleven private 
commercial schools in Virginia enrolling 2,430 students. 

The past half decade has witnessed great development in the 
commerce and trade of cities in Virginia. If their needs are to 
be met, far better provision must be made for commercial educa- 
tion, not only of the clerical type heretofore dominant but 
enlarged so as to compass the larger fields of merchandizing 
and store service. The proximity of Alexandria to Washington 
and the opportunities there afforded for clerical occupations 
opens up a need for the development of clerical education in the 
Virginia city. Richmond, Norfolk, Roanoke, Portsmouth, 
Petersburg, and Newport News possess exceptional opportu- 
nities for the development of clerical and commercial courses. 
Those opportunities must not be lost. 

iv. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

In 1910 the number of persons engaged in manufacturing 
and mechanical pursuits in Virginia was 161,885, or slightly more 
than one-fifth of all persons engaged in gainful occupations. 
Since that time war conditions have caused the industries in 
some parts of the State to develop by leaps and bounds so that 
in all probability more than 200,000 persons are engaged in 
industrial occupations. 

To what extent the newer industries may persist or the 
enlarged scope of older industries continue cannot be foretold. 
It is safe to say, however, that their immediate development 
and their future maintenance will depend in no small degree on 
the extent to which the skilled workers needed can be supplied. 

How can the skilled labor be provided for the industrial 
development of Virginia? Three methods are possible: (1) the 
importation of skilled workers from without the State; (2) the 

1 From an unpublished study by Mr. Cloyd Marvin. 



184 The Public Schools of Virginia 

training of skilled workers in and through the industrial con- 
cerns; (3) provision for industrial education in the schools of 
the State. 

(1). The importation of skilled workers from without the 
State must mean that industrial opportunities open to citizens 
of Virginia will be limited for the most part to the unskilled or 
at best the semi-skilled occupations. Its necessity must also 
seriously condition the location of new industrial undertakings. 
The textile, leather, metal, and other industries of New England 
were not located there because of the proximity of raw materials. 
Virginia must develop her own body of skilled workers. 

(2). The development of the factory system has practically 
eliminated the old apprentice system and the industries them- 
selves have ceased to provide proper training for the skilled 
trades. In Table 87 are presented figures showing the kind of 
industrial training provided in over four hundred concerns 
involving twelve groups of trades in Virginia in 1919. Those 
figures show that only eleven of those concerns provide even 
what they term "apprenticeship with organized instruction," 
and that the only trades thus involved are four railroad shops, 
six ship yards, and one metal trade. The fact is that in all but 
an insignificant proportion of cases trade training in the indus- 
tries of Virginia is limited to the incidental and hap-hazard 
instruction which the "helper" may "pick up" as assistant to 
an expert or from the occasional criticism of a busy foreman. 
Further, the highly subdivided processes of modern factory 
production seldom offer an opportunity for the young worker 
to learn more than one small part of any trade. 

(3). With the exception of a few privately supported insti- 
tutions for negroes (of which Hampton Institute is the most 
notable example), the State Normal and Industrial Institute 
for Negroes at Petersburg, and the Virginia Polytechnic Insti- 
tute, industrial education is practically unknown in Virginia. 
The State Course of Study for Elementary schools recommends 
courses in "manual training in grades five, six, and seven." 
Needless to say those recommendations are followed in very, 
very few white schools and would make very little contribution 
to industrial training if they were followed more extensively. 



Practical Arts Education 185 

They limit such instruction to elementary carpentry, rafia 
work, etc. ''Manual training" in the high schools of the State 
is equally ineffective. 

From these considerations it appears clear: (a) that the 
maintenance and development of industrial efficiency in Vir- 
ginia must be dependent on a supply of skilled workers pro- 
vided within the State; (b) that the industries themselves 
cannot be relied on to provide the necessary skilled workers; 
(c) that the public schools of the State have not heretofore 
made any effective attempt to meet this problem. They must 
do so in the future unless Virginia is to lose its present great 
opportunities. 

Obviously the obligation to provide properly for industrial 
education rests primarily on the city schools of the State. In an 
attempt to estimate their responsibilities and opportunities a 
survey was made of industrial conditions in all cities of the 
State, except Radford, Buena Vista, Williamsburg, Winchester 
(all small cities and with few industries) and Richmond, the 
last because an intensive vocational survey was made there 
recently. • Those figures show that in any one city a relatively small 
number of trades and industries engage a very large proportion of 
the skilled and semi-skilled workers of that city. The trades 
involved in the dominant industries of any city should indicate 
the lines along which industrial education should first be 
developed in the city schools. 

It should be evident that the variety and character of the 
important industries mentioned in Table 88 preclude the possi- 
bility of providing appropriate training in the school buildings. 
The solution should be found in the inaguration of a program 
of part-time cooperative education whereby the boy spends a 
part of his time in the school and a part in the shop under the 
guidance of skilled workers selected on the basis of their fitness 
to train pupils in the special trades involved. 

This is the plan advocated by the State supervisor of indus- 
trial education and has been approved by several industrial 
managers in the course of this survey. It should be adopted 
as the plan to be followed for the development of greatly needed 
industrial education in Virginia. 

1 See note at the close of this chapter. 



186 The Public Schools of Virginia 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1 . That elementary instruction in agriculture and in domestic 
arts be provided in the sixth and seventh grades of every rural 
school, preferably in such consolidated junior high schools as 
those recommended in Chapter XVI. 

2. That in the junior high school every girl be required to 
take at least one course in domestic arts, wherever and whenever 
such courses are offered. 

3. That at least one high school in each county of the State 
provide a department of vocational agriculture and a depart- 
ment for specialized instruction in domestic arts, operated on 
the Smith-Hughes plan. 

4. That all larger cities, especially Alexandria, Richmond, 
Norfolk, Newport News, Portsmouth, Petersburg, Lynchburg 
and Danville, be encouraged to extend their provisions for 
commercial and clerical education. 

5. That all larger cities be encouraged to develop evening 
trade courses and part-time cooperative courses in industrial 
training. 

Note — During the spring of 1919 Mr. R. V. Long, State Supervisor of 
Trade and Industrial Education, in co-operation with the Virginia Edu- 
cation Survey, conducted a careful investigation of the industries and 
trades involving skilled and semi-skilled work in all cities of Virginia 
except Buena Vista, Radford, Williamsburg, Winchester (small cities 
having few industries) and Richmond, the last mentioned city being 
omitted because an intensive vocational survey was made there recently. 

The purpose of this industrial survey was to determine for each city 
the most prominent industries and trades of importance for industrial 
education and to secure some information concerning the number of 
skilled and semi-skilled workers involved. Information was secured in 
part through direct visitation to industrial plants, in part through 
reports made by employment managers on standard forms, and in 
part through the co-operation of chambers of commerce and local 
school officials. 

No attempt was made to secure a detailed analysis of the different 
trades and industries, and the statistics given must be considered as 
approximate only. It is extremely difficult to determine the proportions 
of skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers because of the varying 
standards involved. In all probability the figures given tend to exag- 
gerate the proportion of workers classified as skilled. 

It is impossible here to present in full the findings of the industrial 
survey. They should be published in a special bulletin of the State 
Department of Education. 



CHAPTER XII 

SCHOOL HYGIENE AND HEALTH EDUCATION 

IN Virginia, as in almost all parts of the country, the health 
of children has been neglected seriously in the public schools. 
The results of that neglect have been forced on our attention 
recently by the fact that more than one-quarter of all young 
men examined in the war draft were found pyhsically unfit at 
ages when they should be in the best physical condition. 

Any system of education is radically and fundamentally 
unsound which does not make careful provision for the health 
of school children, and for the development of physically efficient 
citizens. 

How does Virginia meet this need? 

In this chapter an attempt is made to answer that qeustion, 
with reference to (i) school hygiene and sanitation; (ii) health 
teaching and physical training in the schools; (iii) medical 
inspection and health supervision. 

i. — SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 

Proper regard for hygiene and sanitation in school buildings 
and in the administration of schools means only one thing — 
safeguarding the health of children in the schools which they 
are compelled to attend. Conversely, disregard of school 
hygiene and sanitation can mean only one thing — the actual 
creation of physical defects by institutions under public control. 
Thus inadequate or improperly directed lighting not only 
interferes with the work of the school but actually produces 
eye strain and actually creates or intensifies defects in vision which 
permanently inj ure the child. Thus poor ventilation and improper 
heating produce both temporary and permanent evils. Thus 
unsanitary toilets become centres of physical and moral infec- 
tion, and other unhygienic conditions produce results equally 
as bad. It should always be remembered that children are 
grouped together in school rooms for about five hours a day ; 
and that school conditions are far different from ordinary home, 
shop, or office conditions. 



188 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The Survey Staff investigated by personal visits the hygiene 
and sanitation of about six hundred non-city schools and nearly 
all city schools. Figures showing conditions in non-city build- 
ings are presented in Tables 91 and 92. Essential facts are 
summarized below. 

(1) Lighting: Provision for proper lighting involves at 
least five factors: (a) adequacy of window space; (b) proper 
arrangement of windows; (c) proper arrangement of s^ats with 
reference to light; (d) provision of window shades U control 
the lighting; (e) provision for artificial light on dark days. 

Section 676 of the Revised Code of Virginia ordains that "all 
school houses shall provide for the admission of light from the 
left, or from the left and rear of the pupils, and the total light 
area must be at least twenty-five per centum of the floor space." 
Those provisions of the law are ignored in at least four-fifths 
of the schools of Virginia. More than eighty-eight per cent 
of the non-city schools visited by the survey staff had less than 
twenty per cent of window area and fully that proportion of 
schools did not provide for window lighting from the left and 
rear only. 

As a matter of fact, the requirement of "at least" twenty-five 
per cent of window area is absurdly high for Southern schools. 
According to any ordinarily accepted standards a minimum of 
twenty per cent of window area is amply sufficient for the 
schools of Virginia. 

In Tables 91 and 92 are presented figures showing propor- 
tions of buildings receiving various ratings for lighting. Those 
figures indicate that, as measured by any recognized standard, 
one-quarter of all non-city white schools and more than one- 
half of all non-city colored schools have window space so 
insufficient as to endanger seriously the eyes of the pupils. 1 
Of one-room non-city white schools more than two-fifths, and 
of one-room non-city colored shcools more than three-fifths, 
have dangerously insufficient lighting. 1 

Further, windows are so arranged as to violate recognized 
principles seriously in more than one-third of all non-city white 
schools and in more than three-fourths of all non-city colored 

1 Ratings D and E — Window area less than fifteen per cent of the 
floor area. 



School Hygiene and Health Education 189 

schools. 1 This is true in nearly three quarters of all one-room 
white schools and in nine-tenths of all one-room colored schools. 1 

These defects are increased : (a) by faulty seating arrangements 
in about one-quarter of all non-city white schools, in more than 
one-half of all non-city colored schools, in nearly two-fifths of 
all one-room white schools, and in nearly three-fifths of all 
one-room colored schools; (b) by the absence of window shades 
or practically useless window shades in the majority of non- 
city schools; and (c) by the lack of artificial lights in most such 
schools. 

These conditions are intolerable. Is it strange that nearly 
one-fifth of all pupils in non-city schools have defective eye- 
sight? 2 Careless school building by local school authorities 
in despite of State regulations is exacting a heavy penalty paid 
by the children of Virginia. 

(2) Heating and Ventilation: No argument should be 
needed to show the importance of provision for the distribu- 
tion of heat (in cold weather) and for proper ventilation in 
rooms containing from twenty to forty pupils for five hours in 
the day. The State law (Section 674 of the Revised Code) 
ordains that "at least fifteen square feet of floor space and two 
hundred cubic feet of air space" shall be provided "for each 
pupil to be accommodated in each study or recitation room," 
and that no plans shall be approved "unless provision is made 
therein for assuring at least thirty cubic feet of pure air every 
minute per pupil, and the facilities for exhausting the foul and 
vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent of atmos- 
pheric changes. All ceilings shall be at least twelve feet in 
height." These provisions are ignored in fully three-quarters 
of all non-city schools in Virginia. 

In Tables 91 and 92 are presented figures showing the status 
of heating and ventilation in nearly six hundred non-city 
schools of Virginia. Those figures indicate that heating arrange- 
ments are seriously defective in more than one-quarter of all 
non-city white schools, in more than three-fifths of all non-city 



1 Ratings D and E — Defects for the most part consisting of cross 
lighting. 
• See Table 93. 



190 The Public Schools of Virginia 

colored schools, in forty-five per cent, of all one-room white 
schools, and in nearly three-fourths of all one-room city colored 
schools. 1 

Those figures also indicate that arrangements for ventilation 
are either entirely lacking or seriously defective in nearly one- 
half of all non-city white schools, in more than four-fifths of all 
non-city colored schools, in more than two-thirds of one-room 
white schools, and in nearly nine-tenths of all one-room colored 
schools. 2 

In small schools (where at present defects are most common) 
proper heating and ventilation can easily and inexpensively 
be provided. Nothing but ignorance of the simplest principles 
of school building and disregard of State regulations can explain 
the extent of the serious defects found. The least to be expected 
in small schools is provision for a jacketed stove and adequate 
inlets and outlets for air. In larger schools a furnce and a 
complete ventilation system should be provided. 

(3). Water Supply: In one quarter of all non-city white 
schools, in more than one-third of all non-city colored schools, 
in about three-tenths of all one-room white schools, and in 
more than two-fifths of all one-room colored schools provision 
for a supply of water for drinking is very unsatisfactory, 
according to any reasonable standard.* Provision of water for 
purposes other than drinking (e.g. washing after use of the 
toilet or before eating) is made only in the few schools which 
have their own wells or other sources of water supply. 

(4). Sanitary Toilets: Few problems connected with the 
management of school buildings, particularly in the rural 
districts, present greater difficulties than the management of 
toilets. Section 676 of the Revised Code ordains that "Every 
school board shall provide at least two suitable and convenient 
outhouses or water-closets for each of the school houses under 
its control, unless the said school houses have suitable, conve- 
nient and sanitary water closets erected within same. Said 

1 Ratings D and E — For the most part unjacketed or defective 
stoves. 

1 Ratings D and E — D for seriously defective ventilation; E for 
entire lack of provision for ventilation except by open windows. 

' Ratings D and E — D for unprotected wells, broken pumps, etc.; 
E for practically no provision for an adequate water supply. 




Toilet West Lexington. Rockbridge County. 





;■ : rft*jB P|| 




(via " v 





Toilet— Salisbury (Colored). Northampton County. 




"Girls' Side of the Woods "- Zuni (White). Isle of Wight County. 
HOW THE LAW CONCERNING OUTHOUSES IS OBSERVED IN MANY CASES. 

Acts of Assembly, 1908, page 266. "Every school board shall provide at least two 
suitable and convenient outhouses for each of the school houses under its control; 
* * * said outhouses shall be entirely separated, each from the other, and shall have 
separate means of access. School boards shall see that said outhouse are kept in a clean 
and wholesome condition." 



School Hygiene and Health Education 191 

outhouses or water-closets shall be entirely separated, each 
from the other, and shall have separate means of access. School 
boards shall see that said outhouses or water-closets are kept 
clean and in wholesome condition." Most schools meet this law 
to the extent of having two toilets of some sort. In most non- 
city schools, however, it would require a wide stretch of the 
imagination to consider them "suitable," "sanitary," or "kept 
in a clean and wholesome condition." 

In Tables 91 and 92 are presented figures showing the char- 
acter of the toilet facilities and the condition of toilets in non- 
city schools in Virginia. Those figures indicate that toilet 
facilities are seriously defective or lacking in nearly one-third 
of all non-city white schools, in more than one-half of all non- 
city colored schools, in more than one-third of one-room white 
white schools, and in nearly three-fifths of all one-room colored 
schools. 1 They also indicate that the condition of toilets 
is markedly insanitary in nearly one-half of all non-city 
white schools, in more than one-half of all non-city colored 
schools, in about forty-five per cent, of one-room white 
schools, and in nearly three-fifths of all one-room colored schools. 

Many other factors of hygiene and sanitation are involved, 
but cannot be discussed here. The factors considered above 
give sufficient indication that school hygiene and sanitation 
are seriously neglected in Virginia. The plain mandates of the 
State laws, of the regulation of the State Board of Education, 
and the regulations of the State Board of Health 2 are 
ignored in the great majority of schools. With a few 
modifications those laws and regulations are sufficient to 
guarantee reasonably satisfactory hygiene and sanitation in the 
schools of the State, if they are enforced. 

Failure to ensure the enforcement of those laws and regula- 
tions is to be charged in part against the State Department of 
Education, against division superintendents, against county 
and district boards, and against the State Board of Health. 
The fault goes deeper than that, however. Before the situation 



1 Ratings D and E — D representing toilets which are seriously 
defective but which could be repaired and made sanitary; E repre- 
senting toilets either lacking or which should be abandoned. 

* See Virginia School Laws, pp. 45-49. 



192 The Public Schools of Virginia 

can be materially improved several matters of fundamental 
importance must be attended to: (a) communities must be 
awakened to a realization of the importance of school hygiene 
and sanitation; (b) teachers must be trained to understand the 
problems involved; (c) adequate supervision must be provided 
in each county; (d) proper provision must be made to meet 
the needs of health inspection and supervision as suggested in 
the last part of this chapter; (e) the State Department of Educa- 
tion and the State Board of Health must be given sufficient 
assistance to attend to the duties placed upon them. 

ii. HEALTH INSTRUCTION AND PHYSICAL TRAINING 

By section 702 of the Revised Code of Virginia the teaching 
of physiology and hygiene is required in every free public 
school of the State, and each teacher is required to devote not 
less than thirty minutes per month to instruction dealing with 
the prevention of accidents. These are the only legal provisions 
for health instructions and training in the public schools. 

In the State Course of Study for Elementary Schools excel- 
lent provision is made for the health instruction in each grade. 
Unfortunately, however, actual instruction in that field is 
limited to the most perfunctory and unskilled teaching in the 
majority of non-city schools. In one-teacher and two-teacher 
schools, particularly, the crowded program and the quality of 
teachers employed make health instruction relatively ineffec- 
tive. 1 

Physical education through physical exercise is not even 
mentioned in the State Course of Study for Elementary 
Schools. Here and there in a few schools or in a few districts 
energetic and capable teachers and superintendents have organ- 
ized a program of physical exercise. Those instances, however, 
are few and far between. For the non-city districts of the State 
as a whole physical training through exercise is almost totally 
neglected. 

The old high school course of study made no mention of 
physical training. The new high-school course has recognized 
its importance and makes definite, though somewhat limited, 

See Chapter V. 



School Hygiene and Health Education 193 

provision. At present few high schools, even in the cities of 
the State, make anything like adequate provision for the phys- 
ical training of their pupils. 

Nothing short of one full period (at least thirty minutes in 
the clear) of physical exercise per school day for each pupil can 
be considered at all satisfactory. Preferably such exercise 
should be in the open air and in Virginia, fortunately, that is 
possible for the parger part of the school year. This means 
that schools should have sufficient ground space (cf. chapter 
XVII and Table 109). Larger schools should supplement this 
by provision for gymnasiums. 

In smaller schools provision for physical training may be 
made through supervised play. In larger schools competent 
instructors should be provided to direct a comprehensive pro- 
gram of physical training. 

Hi. — MEDICAL INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 

During the school year 1914-15 physicians and officials of the 
State Board of Health conducted a medical inspection of the 
school children in seven counties and two cities of Virginia. 
The results of that inspection are shown in Table 93. From 
the figures there presented it can be seen that a large propor- 
tion of school children in Virginia suffer from one or more 
physical defects which lead to excessive absence from school, 
poor work, failure, and retardation in the school, and serious 
handicaps throughout life. A few of the more important facts 
disclosed are summarized below. 

(1). About twenty-three per cent of all non-city school 
children suffer from defective vision, seriously interfereing with 
their school work. All such defects call for medical attention 
and most are easily remediable. As pointed out in an earlier 
part of this chapter through bad provision for lighting many 
schools actually create or at least intensify such defects. 1 

(2). More than three-fifths of all the school children exam- 
ined had defective teeth, easily remediable by the dentist's care. 

1 Provisions of Section 724 of the Revised Code for the care of 

gupils' vision and hearing have been met by the Superintendent of 
'ublic Instruction, but have been neglected by the majority of teachers. 



194 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(3). From one-half to two-thirds of all school children in 
Virginia suffer serious throat conditions, one-half of the non- 
city children and nearly two-thirds of city children suffering 
from enlarged or diseased tonsils, and more than one-third of 
non-city children and two-fifths of city children suffering from 
adenoid growths. 

(4). A great majority of the school children examined had 
previously suffered from one or more of the commoner conta- 
gious diseases, and had lost varying amounts of schooling 
thereby. In this connection it may be noted that Section 1529 
of the Code provides for the compulsory vaccination of school 
pupils, but permits suspension of the law in whole or in part by 
the school board of any city or county. Division superintendents 
report that in 1918-19 this vaccination law is "enforced" in 24 
counties "neglected" in 49 counties, and "suspended" in 16 
counties. 

Unfortunately financial limitations prevented the Education 
Commission from including in its survey an investigation of the 
physical condition of school children in 1918-19. Since the 
time of the medical inspection referred to above many cities 
and a few counties have made considerable progress in the 
medical inspection and supervision of school children. For 
the State as a whole, however, and particularly in the coimties, 
the situation apparently remains much as it was when the 
statistics in Table 93 were compiled. 

During the years 1910 to 1914 an extensive campaign against 
hookworm diseases was carried on in Virginia in cooperation 
with the Rockefeller Hookworm Commission. Approximately 
one hundred thousand children were examined. In Table 94 
are presented figures showing for fifty counties the percentages 
of children of school age examined having hookworm infection. 
Those figures indicate the facts and suggest the comments 
given below. 

(1). In ten counties of the State, at the time of the examina- 
tion, one or two children in every ten of school age were infected 
with hookworm; in ten counties two or three in every ten chil- 
dren were thus infected ; in nine counties three or four children 
in every ten were thus infected; in seven counties nearly one- 



School Hygiene and Health Education 195 

half of the children were thus infected; in two counties five or 
six in every ten children were thus infected; and in two coun- 
ties two-thirds of the children were thus infected. 

(2). These children are "sickly" and require no small degree 
of medical attention. In most cases, however, parents depend 
on useless or dangerous "medicines." Five dollars a year would 
be a low estimate for the average amount expended for such 
"medicine." 

(3). Children infected with hookworm are unable to learn as 
fast as healthy children. They are frequently mistaken by 
teachers for dull children, or for children mentally defective. 
It is probable that children suffering from hookworm disease 
usually take twice as long to progress through a grade as 
healthy pupils, and for the most part progress about half as 
far in the school before their schooling ends. Their education 
adds greatly to school costs, they lose no small part of the 
education provided, and their backwardness interferes with 
the progress of any class in which they are placed. 

(4). With a competent physician the diagnosis of hookworm 
disease is simple, its treatment easy, and cure almost certain. 
The conditions previously found and, to a considerable extent, 
still persisting, admit of relatively easy correction with proper 
medical inspection and supervision. 

The importance of provision for medical inspection and 
supervision in Virginia was recognized in part by the passage 
of the West Law in 1918. That law (a) authorizes the appro- 
priation of county funds for the inspection of school children 
and the employment of school physicians and nurses, and (b) 
requires each normal school of the State to provide a course in 
preventive medicine and the medical inspection of school chil- 
dren, which course must be successfully completed by every 
normal school student as a prerequisite for graduation. 

What the effect of this law may be cannot, of course, be 
prophesied. It is very doubtful, however, that any permissive 
law can meet the imperative needs of the situation. In all 
probability the needs of the situation will not be met in counties 
where it is most serious unless the law is made mandatory 
instead of permissive and until at least one school nurse is 
required for every county and city in the State. 



196 The Public Schools of Virginia 

An ideal plan for medical inspection and supervision would 
require for each county or large city (1) at least one full-time 
health officer (physician) in charge of health work in the schools, 
(2) as many school nurses as would be necessary so that each 
school could be visited at least once a month, 1 (3) at least one 
school dentist. How nearly the State of Virginia can approach 
that program at present depends on the readiness of her people 
to safeguard with reasonable care their greatest asset — the 
health of their children. From an economic viewpoint the State 
could make no better investment, even with respect to present 
costs. 

Until the State is ready to adopt such a plan it must make 
the best use it can of available resources and possible laws. 
The minimum to be considered should be such provision as 
would permit the medical inspection of school children at least 
once a year by competent persons. It should be remembered, 
however, that mere inspection can produce only information 
and advice. Medical inspection without medical supervision 
and provision for medical care must always be like a machine 
without an engine for power. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That provision be made for hygienic and sanitary school 
houses as recommended in Chapter XVII. 

2. That provision be made for the whole time services of a 
competent person, who, working under the joint auspices of the 
Department of Education and the State Department of Health, 
shall have general supervision of school hygiene and sanitation, 
physical education, and medical inspection and supervision in 
the public schools of the State. 

3. That the present (West) law be so amended as to require 
that each superintendency division (county or city) employ 
the full-time services of at least one school nurse or schoo 
physician. 

4. That the Board of Education require provision for phys- 
ical training in the program of every school in the State. 

1 At present six counties in the State provide at least one school 
nurse. Norfolk county provides three. 



CHAPTER XIII 
NEGRO EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA 

1UEGROES constitute nearly one-third of the total popula- 
tion in Virginia. According to the latest federal census 
there were 671,076 negroes in the State in 1910. Likewise 
the colored school population is approximately one-third of 
the total school population, there being 222,258 colored children 
of school age at the time of the latest school census in 1915. 

The greater part of the colored population is in the South- 
side and Tidewater section of the State. West of the Blue 
Ridge Mountains no county has a colored population as large 
as twenty-five per cent of its total population, and few of the 
western counties have a colored population as large as ten per 
cent of their total population. Further, in the western coun- 
ties of the State the colored population is almost entirely con- 
fined to the cities, towns, and mining centers, whereas in the 
East it is predominantly rural. It averages seventy-six per 
cent rural for the State, and it is noteworthy that negroes con- 
stitute one-third of all persons engaged in agricultural pursuits. 
As farmers, renting and owning land, they control 2,233,833 
acres: as farm laborers they cultivate much more. 

Economic Aspect of Negro Education: The education of a 
group composing nearly one-third of the total population of 
the state necessarily has an important economic bearing. It 
is a well accepted principle that the wealth of any country or 
community is more dependent upon the character, skill and 
general intelligence of its workers than upon mere natural 
advantages. The cities are realizing that the negro is the back- 
bone of the labor supply in many industries which are vital to 
their prosperity and growth, and they are showing increasing 
concern over the housing, recreation and school facilities of the 
colored people, for good wages alone will not make a contented 
and efficient working population. Industrial plants that have 
given their colored workers a better chance have found them- 
selves repaid in quality of output, in loyalty and steadiness of 



198 The Public Schools of Virginia 

their employees. Mr. Homer L. Ferguson, President of the 
Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, and of 
the United States Chamber of Commerce in an address before 
the Richmond Chamber of Commerce, June 25th, 1919, urged 
that Virginia be careful to encourage its Negro labor, which in 
his judgment represented a great asset to the state. Mr Fer- 
guson is qualified to speak on this subject, for his company 
employs over 4,000 Negroes. 

The Northern cities are now bidding for Negro labor, and 
the superior school advantages they offer have something to do 
with the general migration. Better school facilities would go a 
long way in encouraging the colored people to remain in the 
South. The Report of the United States Department of Labor 
on Negro Migration in 1916-17 shows that fewer Negroes left 
communities in the South where good schools were provided 
for their children. 

If this is an important matter for the cities, it is much more 
so for the counties where three-fourths of the Negroes live and 
where they constitute one-third of all persons engaged in agri- 
cultural pursuits, having charge of more than two million acres 
of land. No one familiar with the state needs to be told that 
this land is for the most part cultivated in a very poor and inef- 
ficient fashion. Methods of tradition prevail and the fertility 
of the soil, the greatest natural resource of the state, has suf- 
fered waste. No movement would tend more to the prosperity 
and economic well-being of the State than the increase of intel- 
ligence and skill on the part of this group. The prosperity of 
the colored farmers means the prosperity of the white farmers 
as well, the prosperity of merchants and manufacturers, bankers 
and business men of the entire state. It means increasing the 
taxable wealth and building up the very foundation for good 
schools, good roads, churches, and all community undertakings 
for the general welfare of the people. 

Health: The death rate among Negroes is almost twice as 
high as that among whites and it is clear that little headway 
can be made in bringing under control the preventable diseases 
such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, malaria and hookworm 
disease until the colored people can be brought to cooperate 
with all the agencies of the state for the promotion of public 



Negro Education 199 

health. The work of the supervising industrial teachers and 
the Negro Organization Society gives evidence that they are 
willing to help to the extent of their knowledge. A colored 
man sick with a communicable disease is a source of danger 
to the entire community. Disease draws no color line. 

The colored third of the population of Virginia must be 
trained so as to become economically productive; to become 
healthy enough to eliminate present unhygienic conditions and 
safeguard themselves and their white neighbors from disease; 
to become morally and socially sound, and to supply their own 
trained leaders in the ministry, in teaching, and other fields 
on which their racial integrity and their living depend. 

In this chapter an attempt is made to analyze the present 
status of Negro education in Virginia and to suggest certain 
measures for its administration. 

THE PRESENT STATUS OF NEGRO EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA 

Various factors involved in an analysis of the present status 
of Negro education in Virginia have been considered in previous 
chapters of this report. Important facts may be summarized 
here. 

(a). Provision for Schools: Of all colored pupils in the non- 
city schools of Virginia about eighty-five per cent are enrolled 
in one-teacher and two-teacher schools. Even in counties 
where the colored population is greatest by far the largest pro- 
portion of colored children have no educational opportunities 
other than those offered by the one-teacher school. In non- 
city districts only 13,567 colored pupils were enrolled in schools 
having more than two teachers each in 1916-17, while 95,052 
colored pupils were enrolled in one-teacher and two-teacher 
schools. Outside of the cities there are very few colored schools 
employing more than two teachers. 

Even for the limited type of education provided, the schools 
are generally inadequate. The practice of employing one 
teacher for two schools still survives in a few districts. In at 
least two counties a member of the survey staff found this to 
be the case with reference to a group of Negro schools. In one 
case he was told that the practice obtained of running a Negro 
school every other year or every once in a while. This is not 



200 The Public Schools of Virginia 

typical, but it represents the extreme of indifference which 
obtains to a certain extent in nearly every county with a large 
colored population. Illiteracy flourishes in such communities 
and holds down the average ol the entire state. The deficiencies 
of the Negro public schools cannot be excused on the ground 
that private schools are maintained by church or philanthropic 
agencies. 

High Schools: Few high schools are provided for colored 
children. In the entire state there are only three colored high 
schools accredited for four grades of standard work — the Arm- 
strong High School, Richmond, the Booker T. Washington 
High School of Norfolk city, and the Mt. Hermon High School 
of Norfolk county. 1 Three-year high schools for colored pupils 
are maintained in Lynchburg, Petersburg, and Danville. 
Portsmouth will house its high school next year in a new build- 
ing costing $80,000. Petersburg is also building a new colored 
school costing $100,000. This will be shared by the high school 
and a grammar school. A few other cities have made some 
slight provision for the high school education of colored children, 
but in most of them high school education of colored children 
is almost entirely lacking, or negligible in the opportunities 
supplied. 

According to the High School Report of the State Depart- 
ment of Education for 1917-18, only two colored high schools 
outside of the cities offered as many as twelve units (three 
grades) of work of standard value, and those two schools — 
the Caroline County Training School, and the Mt. Hermon 
High School in Norfolk county, enrolled 91 pupils in the high 
school grades. According to the same report the colored high 
schools of Richmond, Norfolk and Lynchburg enrolled 974 
pupils. 

County Training Schools: With the single exception of the 
Mt. Hermon High School in Norfolk county, no high school 
work for colored children is done in any of the non-city districts 
of the state except in the County Training Schools, encouraged 
and in part supported by the Slater (non-public) fund and by 
funds supplied by the General Education Board. 



1 The Mount Hermon High School became a part of the Portsmouth 
City school system during the session of 1918-19. 



Negro Education 201 

Eighteen of these schools have now been established and their 
development is one of the most promising movements in Negro 
education. The aim is to establish a good central rural school, 
sometimes by consolidation, offering thorough work in the ele- 
mentary grades, and from two to four years of high school 
work, including the industries having to do with the country 
home and farm. A simple course in teacher training is offered 
in the highest grade. A typical plant consists of a class-room 
building, a work shop, a teachers' home, and perhaps a small 
dormitory for boarding students. Most of the schools repre- 
sent only a simple and crude beginning and will require several 
years to work up to the high school grades. 

It is not to be expected that at present the ratio of pupils in 
high school grades should be the same for the white and colored 
population, for the time a pupil can spend in school depends on 
the economic and social conditions of the home from which he 
comes, as well as upon the general desire for knowledge on the 
part of the student, and colored people are not as favorably 
situated as white people in this respect. Most of the rural high 
schools for white children have been established within the 
last fifteen years, and the time is now ripe to do more for the 
high school training of colored children. One hundred thirty- 
three pupils enrolled in high schools 1 in the counties out of 
a school population of 182,969 colored children is a mere beginning. 

The principle of racial integrity is fundamental in the minds 
of both races. It must be recognized that if the Negro race is 
to be sufficient to itself, it must produce its own teachers and 
leaders. The colored people in the country cannot have a 
trained ministry or trained leaders in education and industry 
with the limited educational facilities now afforded. The 
higher institutions cannot perform their proper functions unless 
secondary schools are provided in the state as a connecting link 
between them and the elementary schools. 

(6). The School Term: 2 In 1917-18 non-city schools 
for colored children were open on the average of six months, 
while white schools of the same class were open on the average 
more than seven months. In fifty-five counties the average 
length of the term for colored schools was six months or less; 

1 Including county training schools. 
* See Chapter II and Tables VI-VIII. 



202 The Public Schools of Virginia 

in ten counties the county wide averages were five months 
or less; in one county it was four months; and in one county it 
was 3.2 months. In nearly one-third of 230 non-city colored 
schools, individually examined, the school term was five months 
or less in 1917-18. Particularly significant is the fact that the 
shortest terms for colored schools are commonly found in 
counties and districts having the largest colored population. 

(c). Enrolment and Attendance: 1 Less than two-thirds of 
the colored children "of school age" are enrolled in school. 
Three-quarters of the white children "of school age" are 
enrolled. The status of colored school enrolment is now 
approximately what it was in 1890 as measured by the ratio 
of enrolment to total colored population or to colored school 
population. 2 

The per cent of colored school population in average daily 
attendance at present is about 37: for whites it is about 52. 
In sixty counties of the state the per cent of colored school 
population in average daily attendance is 35 or less, nine coun- 
ties having a record of twenty per cent or less. For white 
children, three counties have a record of 35 per cent or less 
(none under 31 per cent). 3 

For colored pupils enrolled the per cent in average daily 
attendance is about 63: for white pupils enrolled, the per cent 
in average daily attendance is about 67 or 68. On every day 
that the schools are open more than one-third of the colored 
pupils are absent and, as a result, colored pupils lose on the 
average more thnn one-third of the schooling provided. In 
sixteen counties of the state (for the most part those with the 
largest colored population) colored pupils, through poor atten- 
dance, lose, on the average, more than one-half of the meagre 
education provided. One fourth of 218 non-city colored schools 
individually examined have a record of less than fifty per cent 
for average daily attendance. 

(d). Retardation and Elimination:* The story of public 
education for Negroes in Virginia is told by the facts presented 
in Chapter IV, and the figures presented in Tables 15ff. Briefly 
summarized they are as follows: 

» See Chapter III and Tables 11-14. 

1 See Table 12. 

' See Table 13. 

* SeelChapter IV[and Tables' 15 fif. 



Negro Education 203 

1. In non-city schools colored pupils in each grade are on 
the average two years older than the Virginia standard ages 
for those grades, and a year to a year and one-half older than 
white children of the same grades. 

2. In non-city schools eighty out of every hundred colored 
pupils are older than they should be for the grades in which 
they are located. In city schools fifty-five out of every hundred 
colored pupils are thus over-age for their grades. 

3. In non-city schools seventy-five or seventy-six out of 
each hundred colored pupils have spent in school one or more 
years in excess of the time they should have spent there in order 
to reach the grades in which they are found. In cities the corre- 
sponding figures are fifty-eight out of every hundred colored 
pupils. 

4. Eighty-six per cent of colored pupils in non-city schools 
are not older than fourteen. Ninety-one per cent of colored 
pupils in city schools are not older than fourteen. 

5. In non-city schools 99.5 per cent of all colored pupils 
are found in the elementary school: fifty-seven per cent are 
found in the "primer," first, and second grades. 

6. The age-grade distribution of colored pupils in non-city 
schools shows a situation which cannot be described otherwise 
than as chaotic. In most schools grading is almost totally 
lacking. 

7. Colored pupils begin to leave school in large numbers 
after four years (not four grades) of school attendance. Cer- 
tainly not more than fifty per cent attend school for more than 
seven years (not seven grades). 

8. Colored pupils leave school in large numbers by the fifth 
grade. By the seventh grade four-fifths of all colored pupils 
have left non-city schools and more than three-fifths have left 
the city schools. 

(e). The Teaching Force 1 : As a body, the Negro teachers 
of Virginia manifest an earnestness of purpose, a sense of 
social responsibility, and an eagerness to perform their duties 
properly, which leave little to be desired. They are conscientious 



See Chapter VII. 



204 The Public Schools of Virginia 

and self-sacrificing workers, handicapped, however, by inadequate 
education and training, by inadequate equipment, and by 
inadequate financial resources, to such an extent that teaching 
in all but a few colored schools is at a very low level. 

1. In most parts of the state the number of colored teachers 
employed is very inadequate. In more than one-half of the 
state the county wide averages ranged from one teacher em- 
ployed for every seventy colored children of school age to one 
teacher for every 196 colored children of school age. In seven- 
teen counties the record was one colored teacher employed for 
100 to 196 colored pupils of school age. Further, in more than 
one-half of the state the county wide averages ranged from 
forty-one to one hundred colored pupils enrolled for each teacher 
employed. Finally, in sixteen counties the county wide averages 
ranged from thirty-one to sixty-five colored pupils in average 
daily attendance for each colored teacher employed. Many indi- 
vidual schools have totally impossible records, the extreme 
example found by the Survey Staff being a one-teacher school 
having 110 pupils enrolled and eighty-five pupils present on 
the day of visit in a room seventeen and one-half feet by twenty- 
three feet. 

2. Colored teachers as a body have inadequate education 
and training. In non-city schools more than one-third have 
never received an education of two grades of high school work 
or less, one-half have never received an education of more than 
three grades of high school work, and more than three-fourths 
have never received an education above that equivalent to a 
four-year high school course. Only one-fifth have ever received 
an education in training equivalent to one or more years of 
college or normal school. 

3. The inadequate qualifications of colored teachers are 
also shown by the certificates which they hold. Of 923 colored 
teachers whose certificates were examined, more than one-fifth 
held local permits, more than one-quarter Second Grade Certifi- 
cates, nearly one-fifth First Grade Certificates — in all two- 
thirds holding certificates indicating very unsatisfactory quali- 
fications, — while only three per cent held "professional" 
certificates. 



Negro Education 205 

4. In 1917-18 the average monthly pay of colored teachers 
was about $30 and the average annual pay about $183. In 
more than one-half of the state the county wide averages for 
the annual pay of colored teachers was less than $176; in more 
than one-fourth of the state it was less than $151 ; in six counties it 
was less than $126; and in one county it was less than $100. 
Salaries have been increased during the past year. The increase 
in pay, however, is far from equaling the increase in the 
cost of living, even with the most humble standards. Neither 
has the pay of colored teachers increased to meet the competi- 
tion of other occupations. Unskilled labor receives better pay 
than colored teachers in Virginia. 

5. With its present colored population Virginia needs about 
four thousand colored teachers. About three thousand are 
now employed, and of that number not one-quarter are reason- 
ably well prepared for their duties. 

Facilities for the training of colored teachers in Virginia are 
woefully inadequate. The supply of teachers still depends 
chiefly on institutions not maintained by public funds. Three 
hundred and twenty-five graduates of Hampton Institute were 
teaching in the public schools of Virginia in 1917-18. The good 
influence of that institution on colored schools in Virginia can 
scarcely be over-estimated. Other schools, endowed by private 
funds, have contributed no small share to the teaching force of 
colored schools. 

County Training Schools are beginning to send out teachers 
to rural colored schools and promise good assistance in the 
present emergency. They cannot, however, meet the needs of 
professional training, and should not set themselves up as little 
normal schools. 

The one public agency of the state for the training of colored 
teachers is the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute at 
Petersburg. Its total number of graduates up to 1917 was 1,461 
of whom 876 were teachers, 153 were housekeepers, 31 were 
continuing their education in other institutions, 290 were 
engaged in miscellaneous occupations, and 111 were deceased 

At present this school is overcrowded and every year is 
obliged to turn away students seeking admission. The plant 
is too small and sadly in need of repairs and renovation. Its 
financial support is insufficient. But, hampered by over- 



206 The Public Schools of Virginia 

crowding, by meagre equipment and support, this institution 
is performing an admirable work, and in service is richly repay- 
ing the state for every dollar invested. 

A much larger supply of trained colored teachers is impera- 
tive. The state should increase generously its support of the 
Petersburg Normal School, both to increase its output and to 
raise its standard of training Negro teachers. When that has 
been done a second colored normal school must be established. 

(/). Buildings and Equipment: 1 The character of the school 
buildings and of the school equipment provided for colored 
children is too well known to the people of Virginia to require 
detailed description Well planned, well built, and even fairly 
well equipped buildings are very much the exception — many 
cities even providing wretched buildings for their colored chil- 
dren. The figures in Tables 104-112 make sufficiently clear 
the fact that colored school buildings in general are poorly 
built, wretchedly equipped and in many cases impossibly over- 
crowded. 

In spite of present conditions, however, there is distinct 
promise of early improvement. As never before districts are 
interested in the improvement of colored school buildings and 
equipment, the colored people are laboring hard with their own 
resources, the State Department is providing assistance, and 
private endowments are stimulating local and state endeavor. 

In particular the Rosenwald 2 fund is arousing activity in the 
erection of good buildings for colored children, providing, under 
certain conditions of cooperation by the colored people and by 
the state, $400 to complete a one-teacher building, and $500 for 
building a school house of more than one room. Already forty- 
six buildings have been erected at a total cost of $80,000. Of 
this amount the Rosenwald fund gave $22,000, and the colored 
people raised $25,000. 

(g). Supervisions As indicated in Chapter XIV, supervi- 
sion, excellent in character but limited in extent and scope, has 

» See Chapter XVII. 

1 To July 30, 1919, Mr. Julius Rosenwald has assisted in building 
751 Negro rural schools in eleven Southern States. The total cost was 
$1,171,000, of which Mr. Rosenwald gave $285,000, and the colored 
people themselves raised $443,000. Mr. Rosenwald's gifts have been 
made through Tuskegee Institute, Alabama. Virginia ranks fifth 
among the States in number of schools built with aid from this fund. 

» See Chapter XIV. 




(CI Gravel Hill. Amelia County. 
TYPICAL COLORED SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 

A. A splendid type of four-room rural school. 

B. A typical county training school, colored patrons contributing over half of the cost. 

C. The usual type of Negro rural school. 



Negro Education 207 

been provided for rural colored schools of the state. Virginia 
has been a pioneer in cooperating with private foundations for 
the supervision of the colored rural schools. The first super- 
vising industrial teacher under the Jeanes fund 1 was employed 
in Henrico county in 1908-09, and in 1910, a State Agent of 
Negro Rural Schools was first employed. All the Southern 
States with one exception have since that time employed such 
agents through the assistance of the General Education Board. 

Excellent pioneer work has been done in 57 counties. A 
more practical course of study has resulted from the industries 
that have been introduced, the people in the country have been 
organized for self help and public sentiment has been improved. 

It remains to reorganize supervision of colored schools by 
reducing the area of each supervisor's district and extending 
the scope of her work so as to provide sadly needed supervision 
of primary teaching as well as of industrial work. Such a pro- 
cedure would reduce the expense and difficulty of travel as well 
as improve the work of rural colored schools in general. Lack of 
provision for the means and expense of travel constitute one of 
the greatest difficulties to be overcome by colored supervision 
at present. It would be true economy for the counties to fur- 
nish sufficient traveling allowances to enable supervisors to 
provide their own teams or other means of travel. 

(h). Finance: 3 As all other educational problems, the prob- 
lems of Negro education in Virginia sooner or later resolve into 
the fundamental question of money. The general problemsof 
school finance in Virginia are considered in Chapter XXI. 
One point may justify further consideration here. 

The pay of teachers must always be the primary financial 
problem in school administration. It has been shown that the 
pay of colored teachers is so low that there is no possibility of 
securing competent teachers unless and until the teachers' pay 
is materially increased. 



1 The Jeanes and Slater funds for Negro education are administered 
by Dr. James H. Dillard, Charlottesville, Virginia. The Jeanes fund 
is used to assist nearly 300 counties in the Southern States in employing 
supervising industrial teachers. The Slater fund is used chiefly to aid 
secondary schools both public and private. It is now assisting about 
100 County Training Schools in the Southern States. 

1 See Chapter XXI. 



208 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The state appropriates annually to county school boards an 
amount of money determined by the total number of children 
(white and colored together) of school age in the county. That 
money is apportioned to districts by the county boards and to 
schools in each district by the district trustees according to 
their judgment. The result is that money is given to the county 
by the state in amounts determined by the number of children, 
white and colored, (the same amount for each white and each 
colored child) but distributed without reference to the relative 
proportion of white and colored children needing education. 

In Table 95 are presented figures showing the ratio of the 
amount expended for colored teachers' pay and the amount 
received per colored child from state funds in different counties 
and cities. Those figures show that : 

(1). In the group of thirty-two counties having each from 
fifty to seventy-five per cent of their total population colored, 
not a single county spends as much for the pay of colored 
teachers as it gets from the state funds by reason of the presence 
of colored children in the county. For that group of counties 
as a whole, the total expenditure for the pay of colored teachers 
was less than two-thirds of the total amount received from 
state funds by reason of the presence of colored children. 

(2). In the group of thirty-one counties having each from 
twenty-five to fifty per cent of its population colored, eight 
only expend for the pay of colored children as much as they 
get from the state by reason of the presence of colored children. 
For that group of counties as a whole the total expenditure for 
the pay of colored teachers was a little more than three-quarters 
of the total amount received from state funds by reason of the 
presence of colored children. 

(3). Of sixty-three counties of the state having each a pro- 
portion of Negro population in excess of twenty-five per cent 
and together containing seventy-one per cent of all colored 
children in the state, only eight drew on their local tax funds 
for the principal cost of Negro education, namely, the pay of 
colored teachers. The other fifty-five of those counties drew 
money from state funds by reason of the presence of colored 
children and devoted a part of it to the white schools. 



Negro Education 209 

Such conditions are thoroughly unjust and should not be 
tolerated. 

Future Outlook: There is no doubt but that a brighter day 
is at hand for Negro education in Virginia. The good work of 
Jeanes industrial teachers in making the country schools more 
practical in their work and showing what may be done under 
wise direction has created a widespread demand for better 
trained teachers. The attendance of more than one-third of 
the teachers at summer schools is an evidence of their earnest 
spirit and desire to prepare themselves for greater service. The 
self-help of the colored people in raising through their school 
leagues $50,000 a year for various improvements ; and particu- 
larly the ferment over the building of school houses, is being 
met with encouragement and help on the part of local school 
officials. 

Progress in Other States: In providing better Negro schools, 
Virginia will have the company of other progressive states. 
Louisiana has lately increased its school revenues very consider- 
ably and the State Superintendent estimates that a quarter of 
a million dollars more money will be spent next session on the 
Negro schools. A supply of teachers was not available to use 
so large an increase, and in order to meet the emergency, sum- 
mer schools of twelve weeks have been organized in various 
parishes, enrolling over 1,000 students who are working for a 
teacher's certificate. Beauregard Parish in that state has 
recently fixed a minimum salary for colored teachers of $60 
per month. 

The South Carolina legislature recently appropiated $73,000 
to the colored State Agricultural College at Orangeburg. 
North Carolina is spending over $100,000 in new building and 
equipment for colored State Normal Schools. High schools 
have been given encouragement in both of these states. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That in any county or city of the state the amount spent 
for the salaries of colored teachers be not less than the amount 
received from the state for instructional purposes by reason of 
the presence, enrolment, or attendance of colored children in 
that county or city. 



210 The Public Schools of Virginia 

2. That the length of the school term be extended. Cf. 
Chapter II. 

3. That the pay of teachers be increased. Cf. Chapter VII. 

4. That more and better school buildings be provided. Cf. 
Chapter XVII. 

5. That the work of the supervising industrial teachers in 
making a more practical course of study for the rural schools 
be strengthened and extended. 

6. That the number of supervisors be increased so that 
class-room instruction, especially in the primary grades, may 
be supervised, as well as industrial work, and that the state give 
financial encouragement to counties for adequate supervision. 

7. That the work of the County Training Schools be strength- 
ened and that state aid be provided. 

8. That increased facilities be provided for high schools 
both in cities and counties with state aid. 

9. That the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute be 
given more adequate financial support for the training of 
teachers. 

10. That, in due time and after adequate provision has been 
made for the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, a 
second colored normal school be established. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 
IN RURAL SCHOOLS 

IN preceding chapters of this report it has been pointed out 
that education in the rural schools of Virginia is of a very 
inferior character. Thus, in Chapter V it was shown that in 
the majority of rural schools only the merest skeleton of studies 
is provided, that many standards set by the State Course of 
Study for Elementary Schools are practically ignored, that the 
time allotments for various studies conform with no recognized 
standards, and that there is no uniformity or method in the 
apportionment of the teacher's attention to pupils in different 
grades. Further, in Chapter VI it was shown that the results 
of instruction in rural schools fall far below reasonable stand- 
ards of accomplishment. Finally, it was shown in Chapters 
VII to IX that as a body teachers in rural schools are poorly 
educated, have seldom had any professional training, and in a 
large proportion of cases have had no previous experience in 
teaching. 

Those facts show, among other things, the imperative need 
for the supervision of instruction in the rural schools of Virginia. 
In this chapter (i) present provisions are analysed, and (ii) 
suggestions are made for needed changes. 

1. — PRESENT PROVISION FOR RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISION 

At present some provision is made for rural school supervision 
(1) through the division superintendent, (2) through supervisors 
of white schools, and (3) through supervising industrial teachers 
for colored schools. 

(1). Supervision by the Division Superintendent: Theoretic- 
ally the division superintendent among his numerous other 
duties, supervises instruction, and in most counties of the State 
no other provision is made for supervision. As a matter of 



212 The Public Schools of Virginia 

fact, however, he is primarily an administrative and executive 
officer, and in most cases does very little in the way of super- 
vising instruction. This is due in part to the fact that many 
superintendents are unqualified to supervise classroom instruc- 
tion, and in part to the fact that, even where superintendents 
are qualified, the task of classroom supervision is far too great 
for any one person in most divisions. The following facts 
indicate present conditions : 

(a). Of eighty-six (non-city) division superintendents fifty- 
seven report that their entire time is devoted to school duties. 
Of the others fifteen report that they spend "nearly all" of their 
time in school work, while fourteen report that they devote 
form one-third to five-sixths of their time to the schools. This 
does not mean that they devote their time to the supervision 
of instruction, or even to school visitation. By far the greatest 
part of their time is devoted to administrative, executive, or 
business matters. Reports indicate that superintendents on 
the average devote from one-third to one-half of their time to 
school visits, and in most cases the actual supervision of class- 
room instruction plays little part in that work. It is safe to 
say that on the average not more than two or three days a 
week are spent by division superintendents in school visits. 
With rare exceptions division superintendents provide but 
little supervision of actual classroom instruction. 

(b). Several division superintendents are not qualified to 
supervise classroom instruction. In Table 96 are presented 
figures showing that in 1918-19 there were twelve superintend- 
ents who had had no experience in teaching and twenty-one 
who had had less than three years of experience. 

(c). In Table 97 are presented figures showing the size of 
non-city school divisions. Those figures show that on the 
average non-city divisions embrace an area of between 400 and 
500 square miles, contain from 3,500 to 4,000 pupils, and engage 
the services of between 120 and 130 teachers. In the majority 
of divisions the superintendent could not possibly supervise 
instruction adequately, even if he had no other duties to per- 
form. 

It should be clear, as far as classroom supervision is concerned, 
(a) that many of the present superintendents are not qualified 



Supervision of Instruction in Rural Schools 213 

by training or experience properly to supervise instruction, 
and (b) that in most divisions the area to be covered and the 
number of teachers to be supervised preclude the possibility 
of adequate supervision by superintendents. 

(2). Supervisors of White Schools: Prior to 1918 supervisors 
for non-city white schools, except in so far as the division super- 
intendents acted as supervisors, were found in less than five 
or six counties of the State, and in those counties for the most 
part somewhat irregularly as local funds permitted, or as the 
local authorities recognized their need. The State made no 
provision therefor. State funds were first made available for 
this purpose in 1918. In that year provision was made for 
supervision in the appropriation for "rural one-room and two- 
room and graded schools." 

In accordance with that provision the State Board of Educa- 
tion set apart the sum of $15,000 for use in co-operating with 
counties and districts in payment of the salaries of rural school 
supervisors during the school year 1918-19. For the school 
year 1919-20 that fund has been increased to $30,000. 

The conditions under which the State contributes to the pay- 
ment of the salaries of rural school supervisors are: (a) the 
State will pay not to exceed $500 towards the salary of each 
supervisor, provided the local authorities (county or district), 
supply an amount equal to that supplied by the State; (b) the 
State Board of Education reserves to itself the right to approve 
the appointments to fill these positions of rural supervisors, 
the actual selections to be made by the local authorities. 

Under this plan all of the rural schools of the following coun- 
ties received more or less supervision in 1918-19: — Albemarle, 
Culpeper, Elizabeth City, Page, Pittslyvania, Princess Anne, 
and Roanoke. In the following counties the schools of one or 
two districts received supervision, — Loudoun, Montgomery, 
Rockingham and Wise. Further, a supervisor of instruction 
was maintained for each of the counties of Charles City, James 
City and New Kent, those supervisors being employed as home 
demonstration agents during the summer months and for such 
services part of their salaries being provided from the Smith- 
Lever Fund. Also, supervision for some schools of two districts 
of Halifax County was provided through private contributions. 



214 The Public Schools of Virginia 

In addition, the State co-operated in providing funds to employ 
the principals of certain high schools in Russell and Wythe 
counties for one day each week to supervise the rural schools. 
Of the supervisors employed during the session 1918-19 in 
co-operation with the State, the following facts may be noted: 

(a) few had such broad training as their duties should demand; 

(b) the experience of the majority is in amount all that might 
be desired; (c) the salaries paid, with no allowance for travel, 
are totally inadequate; (d) in several cases the areas to be 
covered are such as to render almost useless the type of super- 
vision given, 

(3). Supervising Industrial Teachers for Colored Schools: 
During the school year 1918-19 supervising industrial teachers 
were employed to supervise the colored schools of fifty-seven 
counties. This work was begun in 1908 and has been made 
possible through the co-operation of local school authorities 
and several private agencies. Not until 1918 were any State 
funds available. During the past school year approximately 
sixty per cent of the salaries of those supervisors was paid out 
of appropriation by the several counties by the State and out 
of the Smith-Lever funds. Several private agencies contributed 
the remaining funds necessary. 

These supervising industrial teachers have performed very 
valuable work (a) by developing among the colored people 
a spirit of co-operation with the white people in school matters ; 
(b) by arousing in the colored people an increased interest in 
better schools; (c) by assisting in the raising of funds for school 
improvement by private contributions; (d) by introducing 
simple forms of hand work into the colored schools; (e) by 
serving as home demonstration agents for the betterment of 
home conditions and the saving of food stuffs; (f) by super- 
vising the work of many poorly trained teachers. 

The work of these colored supervisors deserve the active 
support of local and State authorities. At present they are 
working for very inadequate salaries and sometimes at great 
personal sacrifice. More should be employed and better pro- 
vision should be made by the State for their remuneration. For 
a very small expenditure of funds the State and the counties 
are receiving very large returns from this body of workers. 



Supervision of Instruction in Rural Schools 215 

ii. — FURTHER PROVISION NECESSARY 

The proper development of education in rural Virginia is 
impossible without better provision for the supervision of 
instruction. In any circumstances supervision is necessary 
and under present conditions it is imperative that a definite 
program for the supervision of rural schools be inaugurated. 
The survey staff recommends the organization outlined below. 

(1). The State Department of Education: While supervision 
of classroom instruction is primarily a matter of the individual 
teacher, certain important elements involve the State Depart- 
ment of Education. The functions belonging to that depart- 
ment should include : (a) the establishment of standards for the 
course of study, time allotments and daily schedule (cf . Chapter 
V); (b) the publication of typical courses and programs for 
schools of various types (cf. Chapter V), as well as other bulle- 
tins; (c) provision for general State supervision; (d) provision 
for general conferences, etc. 

{2). The Division Superintendent: The superintendent 
should have general oversight and control over the supervision 
of instruction in his division. It must be recognized, however, 
that his duties as an administrative and executive officer in 
most cases will not leave it possible for him to perform any 
great amount of direct supervision over classroom instruction. 
In any division with more than fifty teachers certainly he must 
have assistance in supervision and in the majority of divisions 
direct classroom supervision must be done principally by super- 
visors rather than by the superintendent. 

(3). Supervisors of White Schools: In all divisions having 
fifty or more white teachers engaged one supervisor should be 
employed for every fifty white teachers, or major part of that 
number — such supervisors to work under the direction and 
authority of the division superintendent. 

(4). Supervisors for Colored Schools: In each division em- 
ploying over twenty-five colored teachers one supervisor should 
be employed for every fifty colored teachers, or major part of 
that number. 

Unless some such provision is made for supervision children 
in the rural schools of Virginia must continue to receive a very 



216 The Public Schools of Virginia 

inferior grade of instruction. In the judgment of the survey 
staff provision for the adequate supervision of rural schools 
is one of the most pressing needs at the present time. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That in each non-city superintendency division having 
as many as fifty white teachers employed one supervisor of 
white schools be provided for every fifty teachers or major 
fraction of that number of teachers employed. 

2. That the minimum salary of such supervisors be set at 
one thousand dollars. 

3. That the State provide for the payment of one-half of 
the salaries of such supervisors. 

4. That the minimum qualifications for such supervisors 
be set at full normal school graduation and three years of suc- 
cessful experience. 

5. That in each non-city superintendency division having 
twenty-five or more colored teachers employed one supervisor 
of colored schools be provided for every fifty colored teachers 
or major fraction of that number of teachers employed. 

6. That the State Board of Education establish minimum 
salary standards and minimum qualifications for such super- 
visors of colored schools. 

7. That the State provide for the payment of one-half of 
the salaries of such supervisors for colored schools out of State 
funds or funds passing through the hands of the State Board of 
Education. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE SMALL SCHOOL AND SCHOOL 
CONSOLIDATION 

VIRGINIA is at present a State primarily of small one-room 
and two-room schools. Of approximately sixty-five hun- 
dred non-city schools more than two-thirds are one-room schools, 
more than one-sixth are two-room schools, and less than one- 
sixth have three or more rooms each. Of all schools in the State 
(including those in cities) more than four-fifths are one-room 
or two-room rural schools, enrolling forty-four per cent of all 
white pupils, more than two-thirds of all colored pupils, and 
over one-half of all pupils of both races in the State. It is 
obvious that one of the greatest problems for education in 
Virginia is that created by the large number of one-room or 
two-room schools. 

In previous chapters of this report it has been shown that 
the educational situation in one-room and two-room schools is 
serious. Initial difficulties are : (a) proper grading is very difficult 
when pupils of all stages of maturity and advancement must 
be taught by one teacher or by two teachers ; (b) it is practically 
impossible to devote to each pupil or each grade the attention need- 
ed; (c) proper provision for education in small schools is expensive. 
To those necessary difficulties in Virginia are added at present 
other difficulties and defects previously indicated and in part 
shown in Table 98. They may be summarized as follows: 

1. The average number of days per school term that one- 
room and two-room rural schools are open is 125 for white 
schools, 116 for colored schools, and 122 for both combined. 
Other non-city schools are open nearly one-third longer and 
city schools about two-fifths longer. One-room and two-room 
rural schools for whites are open on the average little more than 
two-thirds of a standard nine-month term, and colored schools 
of the same classes less than two-thirds of a standard nine- 
month term. Cf. Tables 6 and 7. 



218 The Public Schools of Virginia 

2. In the upper elementary grades of one-room and two- 
room non-city schools pupils are on the average more than a 
year older than the Virginia standard age, and two years older 
than the national standard. Colored children in those grades 
are about two and one-half years older than the Virginia stand- 
ard and about three and one-half years older than the national 
standard. Cf. Table 21. 

3. In one-room and two-room non-city schools over three- 
fifths of the white pupils are over-age for their grades according 
to the Virginia standard, and more than four-fifths are over-age 
according to the national standard. Of colored pupils in schools 
of the same class from three-quarters to nine-tenths are over- 
age, according to the Virginia standard, or from 93 to 98 per 
cent, according to the national standard. Cf. Table 22. 

4. In one-room and two-room non-city schools nearly two- 
thirds of the white pupils have attended school a year or more 
longer than they should have attended if progress from grade 
to grade had been regular, and about three-quarters of the 
colored pupils have been in school a year or more longer than 
they should have been to reach the grades in which they are 
found, if progress had been regular. Cf. Tables 17 and 37. 

5. In one-room and two-room non-city schools the ratio of 
average daily attendance to enrolment is less than sixty per 
cent, for white pupils and for colored pupils. 

6. The average annual salary paid in 1916-17 to white 
teachers in one-room and two-room non-city schools was $245, 
or about fifty-seven per cent of the average annual salary 
paid to teachers in larger non-city schools. For colored teachers 
in one-room and two-room non-city schools the average annual 
salary was $167, as compared with $225 paid to colored teachers 
in larger non-city schools. The poorest paid teachers in the 
State are those in one-room and two-room non-city schools, 
though their tasks are infinitely more difficult and call for much 
greater ability and skill than is demanded of teachers in any 
other type of school. Cf. Table 98. 

7. In one-room and two-room non-city schools for whites 
the expenditure per pupil for teaching in 1916-17 was $7.28, 
as compared with an expenditure of $13.41 per pupil for the 



The Small School and Consolidation 219 

same purpose in larger non-city schools. In schools of the 
same classes for colored children the expenditure per pupil was 
$3.38, as compared with an expenditure of $4.79 in larger non- 
city schools. Cf. Table 98. 

8. In one-room non-city schools, and almost to an equal 
extent in two-room non-city schools, the educational offerings 
are commonly limited to the merest skeleton of subjects, and 
many important fields are entirely neglected. Cf. Chapter V. 

9. In one-room and two-room non-city schools as a group, 
the time allotment of the teacher's attention to the different 
grades is such as to sacrifice the interests of the more numerous 
and dependent pupils in lower grades to the interests of fewer 
and less dependent pupils in upper grades. Cf. Chapter V. 

10. In one-room and two-room non-city schools the time 
allotments to various studies is in general so chaotic that pro- 
gram making appears to depend on the whim of individual 
teachers rather than to follow any recognized principles. Cf. 
Chapter V. 

11. In general, the least trained, the youngest, and the 
least experienced teachers are found in one-room and two- 
room non-city schools. Cf. Chapter VII. 

12. While many excellent one-room and two-room non-city 
school buildings are found, the physical plant of such schools is, 
in general, poor, ranging down to types which should long since 
have been condemned, and as a group school buildings are 
poorly built, unhygieuically kept, and wretchedly equipped. 
Cf. Chapter XVII. 

13. One-room and two-room non-city schools receive less 
supervision than any other group of schools in the State, though 
their needs are much greater than those of any other group. 

14. In many schools "sub-first," "primer," or "introductory" 
classes unnecessarily increase the number of grades for which 
instruction is provided. 

15. Results of instruction in one-room schools are far inferior 
to those for any other type of school. Cf. Chapter VI. 

What are the remedies for these intolerable conditions in 
Virginia? In general they are three: (a) provision for better 
teachers, better buildings, better supervision, and longer terms 



220 The Public Schools of Virginia 

in cases where one-room schools are the only types which can 
be provided; (b) the limitation of work in one-teacher schools 
to five grades; (c) reduction through consolidation of the number 
of one-room and two-room schools. 

(a). Better One-room Schools: Sparsity of population and 
topographical conditions will always necessitate a large number 
of one-room or small two-room schools in Virginia, especially 
since separate schools must be maintained for white children 
and for colored children. In the western part of the State 
mountains and mountain streams must always more or less 
isolate communities and schools. In the tide-water regions 
creeks, rivers, and swamps must produce somewhat similar 
conditions. Throughout the State in general poor roads for 
the present must interfere seriously with school consolidation. 

Probably from one-fifth to one-quarter, possibly one-third, 
of the children in Virginia must secure whatever elementary 
education they receive in one-room schools for a long time to 
come. This being the case, educational conditions in such 
schools must be greatly improved. This can only mean greater 
expenditure of money for longer terms, for better teachers, for 
better buildings and equipment, and for better supervision. 
On these topics see Chapters I, VII, XVII, and XIV. 

It should always be remembered, however, that one-room 
schools can never provide an education of desirable standard, 
and that their maintenance should be considered as a last resort 
where school consolidation is impossible. 

(b). Five-grade one-teacher schools: A second remedy for 
present conditions in one-teacher schools is found in the restric- 
tion of instruction to the first five grades. 

At present fifteen counties in the State are reported by 
division superintendents to limit the number of grades taught 
in one-teacher schools to less than seven, the limit in one county 
being four grades, in ten counties five grades, and in four coun- 
ties six grades. All report favorably on such limited one- 
teacher schools as compared with the usual unlimited school. 

Doubtless there are some districts in the State where the 
limitation of one-teacher schools to five grades of instruction 
would work hardship, and certain exceptions to the proposed 
general regulation might well be allowed for cause on the 



The Small School and Consolidation 221 

approval of the county board and the division superintendent. 
Two facts should be noted, however: (1) that the necessary- 
choice is not between seven grades of good instruction and five 
grades of good instruction, but between seven grades of very 
poor instruction and five grades of much better instruction; 
(2) districts where one-teacher schools are a real necessity are 
far less numerous than is usually claimed, the real reason for 
such schools being the unwillingness of districts to pay for the 
two teachers needed, or to develop consolidated schools. 

(c). School Consolidation: School consolidation, i.e., the 
maintenance of one larger school in place of two or more small 
schools, means better education because: (1) it permits better 
grading of pupils (or the substitution of graded classes for 
ungraded classes in the majority of cases); (2) better teachers 
can be secured ; (3) pupils can receive a larger share of the time 
and attention of the teacher; (4) better buildings and better 
equipment can be provided without undue expenditure for 
overhead cost; (5) better teaching is made possible where 
teachers may be assigned to special classes or subjects, e.g., 
where one teacher may have had special training in cooking 
and sewing, or in music and drawing, or in manual arts; (6) 
better supervision is possible. 

It is less costly (for the proper type of education) because: 

(1) for example, in some cases, three teachers can care for one 
group of seventy-five or one-hundred pupils in a consolidated 
school better than five teachers could care for five groups each 
of fifteen or twenty pupils separated in five one-room schools; 

(2) the care and upkeep of one consolidated school building 
costs less than the care and upkeep of three or more one-room 
and two-room buildings; (3) equipment and supplies (e.g., for 
music, cooking, sewing, agriculture, manual training, etc.) 
which are used in turn by many pupils may be furnished in a 
consolidated school at a reasonable cost per pupil unit, while 
the cost of the same equipment would be prohibitive for each 
of three or more schools; (4) supervision costs less for one con- 
solidated school than for a single one-room school. 

School consolidation began long since in some parts of Vir- 
ginia and in some counties has progressed successfully. For 
the State as a whole, however, little has been done in the way 



222 The Public Schools of Virginia 

of consolidation, and in most parts of the State numerous one- 
room and two-room schools exist, not through any physical 
difficulties, but only because districts have failed to recognize 
the weakness of the small school or have permitted local 
influence to perpetuate those weaknesses. The members of 
the Survey Staff are not unaware of the difficulties, or in many 
cases the impossibilities of consolidation. Nevertheless, they 
cannot fail to note that in many cases consolidation has not 
taken place where perfectly possible and eminently desirable. 
The possibilities of school consolidation in Virginia have scarcely 
begun to receive attention. 

Why has school consolidation been so neglected? Largely 
for one or more of the following reasons. (1) Convenience 
(pride is not the word) has dominated action in communities 
which insist on maintaining poor schools in their own immediate 
vicinity rather than joining with their neighbors in maintaining 
a good consolidated school. (2) The system of district boards 
and district schools has interfered seriously with school con- 
solidation. (3) People have not realized how bad their small 
schools really are and how limited the education is which can 
be provided even in the best one-room and two-room schools. 
(4) Active attention on the part of the State Board and of the 
State Department of education has not been sufficiently in 
evidence, though more or less passively they have advocated 
consolidation and though section 612 of the Revised Code pro- 
vides that the State Board of Education shall guard by regula- 
tion against such a multiplication of schools as will tend to 
cause a low grade of instruction in the schools, or in any other 
way impair their efficiency. (5) Groups of communities find 
difficulty in agreeing on the building of a school house of the 
consolidated type and on its location. (6) In very many parts 
of the State physical conditions (topography and poor roads) 
make consolidation totally impossible. 

Beyond question school consolidation must proceed much 
farther if educational conditions in rural Virginia are to be 
improved. Means of furthering the movement are (1) a sys- 
tematic analysis of conditions and possibilities for consolida- 
tion in each county by the division superintendent; (2) a cam- 
paign of propaganda and action by the State Board of Educa- 



The Small School and Consolidation 223 

tion and by the State Department of Education; (3) State aid 
through subsidy for buildings of the consolidated school type; 
(4) the abolition of present district lines and the establishment 
of a county system of schools (Cf. Chapter XIX); (5) school 
re-organization as suggested in Chapter XVI. 

A necessary corollary to school consolidation is the free trans- 
portation of pupils living at a distance from the school building. 
In Table 99 are presented figures showing the extent to which 
this has already developed in Virginia. Those figures show 
that one or more wagons are employed for the transportation 
of pupils in some part or parts of fifty seven counties, They 
also show, however, that of nearly five hundred non-city school 
districts three hundred sixty-one made no provision for the 
transportation of pupils in 1916-17. In some districts trans- 
portation is, of course, unnecessary. Nevertheless, the figures 
show that Virginia has scarcely begun the consolidation of 
schools and the transportation of pupils. 



RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State Board of Education call for an investiga- 
tion and report by each division superintendent, that report to 
include: (a) a school map of the county showing the location 
and type of each school, distances between schools, etc.; (b) 
such statistics concerning size of schools, length of terms, types 
of buildings, etc. as would assist in determining the possibilities 
of school consolidation; (c) recommendations concerning pos- 
sible school consolidation. 

2. That a member of the State Department of Education 
be detailed to assist county boards and division superintendents 
in securing school consolidation. 

3. That for administrative purposes the district system be 
abandoned and that the county be made the unit for school 
administration and organization. (Cf. Chapter XIX.) 

4. That the State adopt a policy of liberal State aid in pro- 
viding for the free transportation of children to consolidated 
schools. 



224 The Public Schools of Virginia 

5. That instruction in one-room schools be limited to grades 
one to five inclusive. (Cf. Chapter XVI.) 

6. That the "sub-first," "primer" or "introductory" classes, 
so-called, be eliminated in all one-teacher and two-teacher 
schools. 

7. That the education offered in one-room and two-room 
schools be improved by : (a) providing better trained and better 
paid teachers (See Chapters VII-IX); (b) by providing better 
buildings and equipment (See Chapter XVII); (c) by pro- 
viding better supervision (See Chapter XIV); and (c) by 
providing for a standard nine months term (See Chapter II). 



CHAPTER XVI 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

AT present the school system of Virginia provides eleven 
grades of instruction, the complete course being divided 
into seven grades of elementary and four grades of high-school 
education. This is commonly called the "seven-four" plan in 
contrast with the "eight-four" plan which is the standard 
organization in most parts of the country and with the "five- 
six" or "six-six" plan and their variations rapidly growing in 
favor. 

In the judgment of the Survey Staff the present school organi- 
zation is not well suited to the needs of the State, and involves 
many defects which seriously handicap the education of Vir- 
ginia children. Those defects may be summarized in this 
chapter and proposals made for improvement. 

1. — SOME EXISTING CONDITIONS 

1. In the public schools of Virginia pupils tend to leave 
school at an early age, after a brief period of attendance, and 
at an early stage of their education elimination begins early 
and progresses rapidly. 1 

2. There is a tremendous amount of retardation, especially 
in the non-city schools. 1 

3. About two-thirds of the schools of Virginia are attempting 
the impossible task of providing seven grades (sometimes 
eight grades) of instruction with one poorly-trained teacher. 1 

4. The average size of the upper grades in one-teacher white 
schools is about three pupils, in two-teacher white schools about 
five pupils, and in three-teacher white schools about seven or 
eight pupils. 



See Chapter IV. 
See Chapter XV. 



226 The Public Schools of Virginia 

5. In the smaller schools of the State the instruction provided 
for each grade or received by each pupil is spread so thin that 
effective education is impossible. Neither upper grade pupils 
nor lower grade pupils can receive the proper attention of the 
teacher, and unfortunately in most cases the interests of the 
younger pupils are sacrificed for the benefit of pupils in upper 
grades. 1 

6. The education of pupils in the upper elementary and 
early high-school grades is extremely costly, if properly provided, 
because pupils are scattered in small numbers in several small 
and weak schools. 

7. The small numbers of pupils in the upper grades of most 
non-city schools precludes the possibility of providing studies 
requiring special equipment such as science, and all vocational 
subjects. 

8. In the school year 1917-18 (according to the report of 
the State High School Supervisor) there were 552 high schools 
in Virginia. Of those only 183 (about one-third) were four- 
year accredited schools, while 147 (about one quarter were three 
year or four-year unaccredited schools, and 222 (about two- 
fifths) were unaccredited schools, offering less than three grade- 
years of high school work. A somewhat different classification 
given in the Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion for 1917-18 indicates that there were 627 schools attempt- 
ing to provide some kind and some amount of high-school 
instruction, 227 of those schools being classified as First Grade 
High Schools, 184 as Second Grade High Schools, 164 as Third 
Grade High Schools, and 90 as schools providing one class grade 
of high school work. There are far too many over-ambitious 
small schools in Virginia attempting to provide high-school work, 
for the most part at the expense of the lower grades. 

9. An average of less than ten pupils to a grade is found in 
one-third of the four-year high schools, in nearly three-quarters 
of the three-year high schools, and in almost all of the schools 
maintaining less than three high-school grades. This means 
very limited secondary education at very high cost. 

> See Chapter V. 



School Organization 227 

10. The median per pupil cost of high-school instruction in 
1917-18 was $42.40 in accredited non-city high schools, and $50 
in non-accredited non-city high schools, as compared with a 
per pupil cost of $10 for elementary school instruction in 
non-city schools maintaining accredited or unaccredited high- 
school grades. 

11. In 1917-18 fifteen counties of Virginia had no accredited 
four-year high schools. Twenty-eight counties had each one 
or more accredited four-year high schools, but also each had 
at least five or more unaccredited schools claiming to offer two, 
three, or four years of high school work, for the most part 
offering less than twelve units of high school work. 

12. In 1917-18 Virginia had one non-city high school of 
some sort for every 29 high school pupils enrolled. In high schools 
of the "First Grade" the average high school enrolment was 54, 
in those of "Second Grade" it was 24, in those of "Third Grade" 
it was 15, and in schools offering one grade of high school work 
it was 7. 

Summarizing present conditions we may say that the present 
school organization has resulted in a situation where neither 
the elementary schools nor the high schools can perform their 
proper functions. 

ii. — REORGANIZATION RECOMMENDED 

Few of the defects of the present school organization men- 
tioned above are peculiar to Virginia. They have been found, 
sometimes in less, sometimes in more aggravated form, in all 
parts of the country, and recognition of them has led to a com- 
prehensive reorganization, particularly affecting the upper part 
of the school system. 

This movement has in general taken the form of a six-grade 
elementary education, followed by six grades of secondary educa- 
tion, the latter being divided into two departments commonly 
denominated "junior" and "senior" high schools. In Virginia, 
with its eleven-grade school course, the movement has already 
found exemplification in the junior and senior high schools 



228 The Public Schools of Virginia 

of Richmond and Roanoke, and the reorganization has been 
advocated by the State Board and State Department of Edu- 
cation. 

The latest report of the Supervisor of High Schools contains 
the following statements: 

"Ordinarily, in systems of schools with eight elementry grades, 
we find the introduction of the junior high school resulting in the 
organization of elementry schools of six grades, junior high schools of 
three grades, and senior high schools of three grades — the so-called 
6-3-3 plan. In Virginia, along with many other States in the South, 
we have only seven elementry grades, and the junior high school of the 
rural districts, therefore, will embrace the seventh elementary grade, 
and the eighth and ninth high school grades." .... 

The State Board of Education has abandoned its triple standards 
of First, Second and Third Class high schools, and in the future will 
standardize only the junior and senior high schools. High schools 
that do not correspond to either of these two types should seek, as 
soon as possible, to conform to one of the two types of organization. 

In the judgment of the Survey Staff the State Supervisor and 
the State Board of Education are right in providing for the reor- 
ganization of the School system. A change is imperative. 
The Survey Staff does not believe, however, that State Super- 
visor and the State Board are right in providing for a six- 
three-two organization, but recommends for the present a five 
three-three organization, later to be converted into a six-three- 
three system. 

Reasons for the modification of the State Board's plan are 
as follows : 

(1). At present the median age of white children in the sixth 
grade of non-city schools is approximately thirteen, in the 
seventh grade, fourteen and a half, and in the first grade of the 
high school nearly fifteen. 1 The junior high school should 
enroll children before the upper age limit of compulsory attend- 
ance is reached, and before the forces of elimination are strong. 
At present, this would mean that the junior high school should 
begin when children are less than fourteen. If it begins at the 
seventh grade its beginning would practically coincide with the 
end of compulsory attendance, and the influence of the break 
in the school system would only add one more factor to elimination. 
At present nearly nine-tenths of non-city white pupils remain 

« See Table 21. 



School Organization 229 

in school up to the age of thirteen, and only a little over three 
quarters remain up to the age of fourteen. 1 

(2). At present from 85 to 89 per cent of white children 
remain in school for at least six years, but only 71 or 72 per 
cent for seven years. 2 With the large amount of retardation 
now found, this means that relatively few children reach the 
seventh grade and would never come under the influence of the 
junior high school if it began with the seventh grade. 

(3). At present about eighty-seven per cent of white pupils 
reach the sixth grade, but about seventy per cent only reach 
the seventh grades 

(4). In rural districts a junior school covering the seventh, 
eighth, and ninth grades would enroll much fewer pupils than 
one covering the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades (in the 
present eleven-grade course), and reasonably sized grades are 
essential for effective high school work. 

(5). The 6-3-2 plan would reduce the senior high school to 
two grades of instruction, preventing effective organization 
and administration. 

(6). The 5-3-3 plan is recommended for the present (instead 
of the 6-3-3 plan) only because the Survey Staff does not 
believe in suggesting too extensive reorganization at one time. 
Eventually, and in the near future, Virginia should adopt the 
practice found in all parts of the country except the South, and 
provide an education for children from the ages of six to eigh- 
teen. When that is done the twelve grades of instruction should 
be organized on the 6-3-3 plan. 

By many teachers and school officers in Virginia it has been 
suggested that no definite restrictions be set for the division 
of the five grades of secondary education afforded under the 
reorganization, but that various combinations be permitted 
so that systems might be organized on a 6-3-2, 6-2-3, 6-4-1 or 
other plan, according to the judgment of the districts. It 



See Table 21. 
See Table 18. 
See Table 20. 



230 The Public Schools of Virginia 

should be obvious that any desirable degree of standardization 
would be impossible under such conditions. Whatever organi- 
zation be preferable, it should be made standard. 

In its complete form the school organization proposed by the 
Survey Staff would include for any county or city the provisions 
outlined below: 

(1). A number of five-grade (later to be converted into 
six-grade) elementary schools distributed according to the dis- 
tribution of population much as at present, but with greater 
consolidation; 

(2). A much smaller number of three-grade junior high 
schools so distributed as to permit the grouping of upper grade 
pupils coming from several different elementary schools; 

(3). A still smaller number of senior high schools receiving 
pupils from several junior high schools. 

Diagrammatically the organization for any one region may 
be represented as in Figure. 

Elementary Schools 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 

Junior High Schools 12 3 

Senior High Schools 1 



Thus elementary schools numbers 1,2, 3, 4, and 5 would con- 
tribute their sixth grade pupils to junior high school number 1, 
and junior high schools numbers 1, 2, and 3 would contribute 
their ninth grade pupils to senior high school number 1. In 
cities the elemental schools, junior high schools, and senior 
high schools are ordinarily housed in separate buildings. In 
rural districts smaller schools will house the first five grades 
only, larger schools will house elementary grades and junior 
high school grades, while the largest schools will house all 
eleven grades. 

Obviously topographical conditions, the distribution of popu- 
lation, and other factors must determine in large measure the 
articulation of schools under the proposed reorganization as 
under any form of school organization. No form of organiza- 
tion can eliminate the inherent difficulties of education and 



School Organization 231 

school administration in sparsely settled districts. The best 
that can be done is to minimize such necessary disadvantages 
as much as possible. That can best be done under the proposed 
reorganization. In the judgment of the survey staff the alter- 
native is a perpetuation of the intolerable conditions outlined 
in the earlier part of this chapter. 



RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the school system be reorganized for the present 
so as to provide, as outlined in this chapter: (a) elementary 
education consisting for the present of five grades of instruc- 
tion; (b) junior high school education, consisting of three grades 
of instruction in grades six, seven, and eight; (c) senior high 
school education consisting of three grades of instruction in 
grades nine, ten and eleven. 

2. That in due time, and after the above reorganization 
has been accomplished, the school course be lengthened to 
twelve grades by extending elementary instruction to include 
six grades. 



CHAPTER XVII 
SCHOOL BUILDINGS, GROUNDS AND EQUIPMENT 

THE selection of school sites, the development of school 
grounds, the construction and care of school buildings, and 
provision for material equipment, are vital factors affecting 
the efficiency of education and the health of pupils. 

What are the conditions in Virginia? Are school sites well 
selected? Are grounds of proper character provided? Are 
buildings well planned and well constructed? Are buildings 
and grounds well cared for? Is the proper equipment supplied? 

In an attempt to secure information which would answer 
these questions members of the Survey Staff by personal visits 
investigated about six hundred non-city school buildings of 
various types in eighteen counties and nearly all city school 
buildings. The results of those investigations are discussed 
briefly in this chapter. 1 

A. — NON-CITY SCHOOLS 

In Tables 104 to 107 are presented figures showing the 
ratings assigned to 574 non-city schools of Virginia with respect 
to various items. Those ratings are analyzed and discussed in 
some detail in following sections which deal with special phases 
of the school plant. In anticipation, however, and as rough 
measures of the school plant as a whole, we may note the fol- 
lowing facts indicated by the summarizing figures presented in 
Table 108: 

(1). One-half of the aggregate of ratings assigned to one- 
room schools for white children and nearly two-thirds of the 
aggregate of ratings assigned to one-room schools for colored 
children are D or E indicating for various items total absence, 
complete defect, or very unsatisfactory provision. 

(2). As larger schools are considered conditions improve 
noticeably. One-room buildings are the poorest. 



1 See note at close of this chapter concerning the methods employed. 



Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 233 

(3). Of all ratings assigned to all non-city schools for white 
children more than one-third were D or E and of all ratings 
assigned to non-city schools for colored children nearly three- 
fifths were D or E. 

(4). Of all ratings assigned to all non-city schools for white 
children about one-sixth were E and of all ratings assigned to 
all non-city schools for colored children approximately one- 
third were E — indicating total defect or complete absence of 
the items involved. 

Obviously these figures for the aggregates of ratings assigned 
can give a rough indication only of the general situation, since 
in those aggregates the relative importance of various items is 
ignored. Hence it is necessary to consider separately the 
various groups of items. This is done below. 

I. — GROUPS AND SITES 

Recognized standards for the size of school grounds and 
standards accepted by the State Board of Education require 
at least two acres of land for one-room or two-room schools. 
In Table 109 are presented figures showing the number of 
schools with grounds of various sizes in 1917 (latest available 
figures for the State as a whole.) Those figures show: (a) that 
only 18 per cent of non-city schools have grounds of two acres 
or more each, (b) that nearly one-third of all non-city schools 
have each less than one acre of land, and (c) that about one- 
sixth of all non-city schools have less than one-half acre of 
land. 

Space is not available here to present in detail all the argu- 
ments which demand better provision for school grounds. It 
must suffice to point out, (a) that the arguments have had suffi- 
cient force to establish a minimum standard of two acres of 
land for schools in most states of the country, (b) that such a 
standard is recognized as valid by the Virginia State Depart- 
ment of Education, and (c) that proper provision for physical 
education and play, for school gardens, and instruction in agri- 
culture, and for the proper setting of buildings, outhouses, etc., 
requires not less than two acres of land. In cities available 
sites, the cost of land, and other factors frequently render 



234 The Public Schools of Virginia 

difficult, if not impossible, proper provision for school grounds. 
This is not true, however, for non-city districts and there can 
be no justification for the inadequate grounds now provided in 
most parts of the State. 

In Tables 104 to 107 are presented figures showing the 
ratings assigned to schools with respect to the general character 
of school grounds (natural features considered with due regard 
to the selection of site as conditioned by surrounding territory) , 
the condition of grounds (artificial conditions as affected by 
provision for its care) , and the accessibility of the school. Those 
figures indicate that sites have been chosen with reasonably 
satisfactory care from the view point of natural features of the 
territory and accessibility. In some cases it was apparent to 
the investigators that proper judgment was not exercised, but 
on the whole the problem of suitable sites had been met reason- 
ably well. In this connection, however, it should be noted that 
the rating A with respect to "accessibility" was assigned to 
schools where no pupil had to walk more than two miles to 
school, school transportation always being allowed for. Hence 
the figures presented show that in 193 of the white schools and 
112 of the colored schools investigated some of the children in 
each case had to walk more than two miles to school. Thus 
importance is attached to the problems of consolidation and 
transportation considered in Chapter XV. 

II. — BUILDINGS 

The story of schoolhouse construction and care is told in 
Tables 104 to 107. The outstanding facts shown may be sum- 
marized here. 

(1). Of 407 school buildings for white children only 230 were 
of a general plan which could justify ratings of A, B, or C — i.e., 
were at all satisfactory, while 113 were barely possible under the 
lowest permissible standards and 64 were apparently built with 
almost total disregard of school needs. The conditions are con- 
spicuously worst in one-room schools. 

(2). Of 167 school buildings for colored children only 44 
were of a general plan at all satisfactory, while 123 received 
ratings of D or E. Of the one-room buildings for colored chil- 
dren 97 out of 112 investigated received D or E ratings. 




Wild Cat School. Wise County. 





iM 


3WH " ~A Nl^f V 


, i 












w^ „„„ ^. 


IB "H-fJ ^^ 

■J ' JM - 


• in 




''■- : 






S&S* 











Ebenezer. Smyth County. 




Eastville. Northampton County. 
BUILDINGS OF THE A-B" TYPE. 




Rough and Ready. Rockbridge County. 




Washington Academy. Amelia County. 




Ottoman High School. Lancaster County. 
BUILDINGS OF THE "D-E" TYPE. 



Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 235 

(3). Of 407 school buildings for white children 183 make 
no provision for cloakrooms and in one-room schools 1 14 out of 
164 make no such provision. 

(4). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 117 make no 
provision for cloakrooms and in one-room schools 90 out of 
112 make no such provision. 

(5). Of 407 school buildings for white children 116 were 
assigned ratings of only D or E with respect to provision for 
heating. 1 

(7). Of 407 school buildings for white children 194 received 
ratings of only D or E with respect to provision for ventilation. 1 

(8). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 136 received 
ratings of only D or E with respect to provision for ventilation. 1 

(9). Of 407 school buildings for white children 181 provide 
each window space equal to not more than fifteen per cent of 
the floor space and 78 provide not more than ten per cent of 
window space. 2 

(10). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 133 have 
each window space equal to not more than fifteen per cent of 
the floor space and 82 provide not more than ten per cent of 
window space. 2 

(11). Of 407 school buildings for white children 141 have 
windows so arranged as to interfere with instruction and to 
endanger the eyesight of pupils. 8 

(12). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 129 have 
windows so arranged as to interfere with instruction and to 
endanger the eyesight of pupils. 8 

(13). More than one-quarter of all school buildings for white 
children received ratings of D or E with respect to condition of 
repair — showing great neglect of school property. 

(14). Between one-third and one-half of all school buildings 
for colored children show great neglect with respect to condi- 
tions of repair. 

1 For further discussion see Chapter XII. 

• The State law requires at least twenty-five per cent. That is too 
high. Twentv per cent, is the usual standard. See Chapter XII. 

• See Chapter XII. 



236 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(15). Of 407 school buildings for white children 102 (one- 
quarter) received ratings of only Dor E with respect to provision 
for water supply. 1 

(16). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 59 received 
ratings of only D or E with respect to provision for water supply. 1 

(17). Of 407 school buildings for white children 133 received 
ratings of D or E for toilet facilities and 191 received ratings of 
D or E for the condition of toilets. 1 

(18). Of 167 school buildings for colored children 87 received 
ratings of D or E for toilet facilities and 93 received ratings of 
D or E for condition of toilets. 1 

(19). Of 407 school buildings for white children 248 received 
ratings of D or E for fuel storage facilities and 191 made no such 
provision. 

(20). Of 167 schools for colored children 123 received ratings 
of D or E for fuel storage facilities and no such provision at all 
was made in 104 of those schools. 

In view of these facts one is forced to the conclusion that 
in very large proportion non-city school buildings are badly 
planned, are improperly constructed, and receive inadequate care 
after erection. Naturally conditions vary widely in different 
parts of the State or in different districts of the same county. 
In some counties buildings are almost uniformly satisfactory; 
in others thay are almost uniformly bad. In the judgment of 
the State supervisors who co-operated in this building investiga- 
tion the conditions found in the eighteen counties intensively 
surveyed are truly representative of conditions in the State as 
a whole. 

In this connection it may be added that the bad conditions 
found are not confined to old buildings. A large proportion of 
the buildings erected within the past five years manifest an 
almost total disregard of standards and should never have been 
permitted. 

Where does the difficulty lie in securing good school buildings? 
The State law sets up for school buildings standards which in 
general are in accord with recognized standards and good prac- 



• See Chapter XII. 




Radium (Colored), erected 1918. Greensville County. 




Caldwell, erected 1918. Giles County. 




Woodville (Colored), erected 1915. Henrico County. 
RECENTLY ERECTED SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 

Code, Section 1489. "No school house shall be contracted for or erected until the 
site, location, plans and specifications therefor shall have been submitted to and 
approved in writing by the division superintendent of schools, whose action in each 
case shall be reported by him to the State Board of Education." 



Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 237 

tice: e.g., (a) the law forbids the contracting for or erection of 
school houses unless the site, location, plans and specifications 
are first submitted to and approved in writing by the division 
superintendent; (b) the law provides that the division superin- 
tendent shall not approve any plans for school buildings or 
additions thereto unless proper provisions are made for size of 
rooms, ventilation, fire protection, adequacy of window lighting, 
arrangement of window lighting, sanitary toilets, etc. 1 

The difficulty lies, not in the standards which are set by the 
statutes and the regulations of the State Board of Education, 
but in the facts: (a) that local school authorities ignore those 
standards and violate at least the intent of the law; (b) that 
division superintendents in many cases neglect their sworn 
duties; (c) that effective penalties for violations either are not 
provided or are not enforced. 

The obvious remedy is found in an enforcement of the present 
law and such amendments to that law as will ensure its effec- 
tiveness. Particularly important here is the need for such 
supervision of buildings as may make possible the enforcement 
of the law. To that end the Survey Staff recommends that a 
supervisor of school buildings and grounds be added to the 
staff of the State Department of Education. 

III. — EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES 

In Tables 104 to 107 are presented figures showing the ratings 
given to certain equipment and accessories in non-city schools. 
The principal facts disclosed by those figures may be summa- 
rized here. 

(1). Of 407 non-city schools for white children 187 either 
provide no desks at all for teachers or desks practically useless 
for necessary purposes. Of 162 one-room schools 108 manifested 
such neglect. 

(2). Of 167 non-city schools for colored children 143 either 
provide no desks for teachers or desks practically useless. Of 
112 one-room schools 103 manifested such neglect. 

(3). Of 407 non-city schools for white children 116 provided 
pupils'desks almost wholly unfit for use. Of 162 one-room 
schools 72 manifested such neglect. 

1 Revised Code Section 673. 



238 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(4). Of 167 non-city schools for colored children 125 provided 
pupils' desks almost or wholly unfit for use. Of 112 one-room 
buildings 91 manifested such neglect. 

(5). Of 407 non-city schools for white pupils 111 had pupils' 
desks badly arranged to permit the proper direction of lighting 
and with proper regard to blackboards and other instructional 
needs. 

(6). Of 148 non-city schools for colored children 82 had 
pupils' desks badly arranged. 

(7). Of 407 non-city schools for white children 231 received 
ratings of D or E with respect to provisions for maps, globes and, 
charts — indicating no provision or practically useless material. 1 

(8). Of 167 non-city schools for colored children 151 received 
ratings of Dor E with respect to provisions for maps, globes and 
charts. 1 

(9). Of 407 non-city schools for white children 157 received 
ratings of D or E for blackboards — indicating no provision or 
practically useless equipment. 1 

(10). Of 167 non-city schools for colored children 130 have 
either no blackboards or blackboards practically useless. 1 

(11). Of 407 non-city schools for white children 242 had 
either no window shades or shades practically useless. 

(12). Of 167 non-city schools for colored children 132 had 
either no window shades or shades practically useless. 

Comment on the facts disclosed by these figures would be 
superfluous. There can be no doubt that in very large propor- 
tion the non-city schools of Virginia lack even the minimum 
essentials of equipment necessary for instruction and school 
room management. 

B. — CITY SCHOOLS 

In Tables 110 and 111 are presented figures showing the 
scores on the Strayer Scale assigned to 102 city school buildings 
for white children and to 38 city school buildings for colored 
children. 2 They are summarized in Table 112. 



1 See Chapter V. 

* For a description of the methods employed in scoring city school 
buildings, see the note at the end of this chapter. 



Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 239 

From those figures the following facts may be learned : 

(1). Two-fifths of all city school buildings for white children 
were assigned scores between 800 and 980. This means that these 
are good buildings and compare very favorably with school 
buildings above the average in other states. 

(2). No city school building for colored children received a 
rating above 900 and only two such buildings were rated above 
800. In all probability the colored school now in process of 
construction at Petersburg will easily be worthy of a score above 
900. 

(3). Nearly one-half of all city school buildings for white 
children received a rating of between 600 and 800. Of those 
buildings 26 received ratings of 700 to 800 points and may be 
considered as of approximate^ average grade, while 24 received 
ratings of 600 to 700 points and must be considered as notice- 
ably below average. 

(4). Of city school buildings for colored children 11 (29 per 
cent) were rated between 700 and 800 and may be considered 
as of above average quality while 5 were rated between 600 
and 700 and must be considered below average. 

(5). Of city school buildings for white children 11 were rated 
below 600 and must be considered as markedly defective. 

(6). Of all city school buildings for colored children about 
one-half were rated below 600 and must be considered markedly 
defective. At least six city school buildings for colored children, 
and probably several more, are public disgraces and should be 
condemned at once. 

Detailed consideration of city school buildings is here impos- 
sible; cities vary widely in the character of the school buildings 
provided and even within cities great variability is manifest. 
Petersburg and Richmond provide the best school buildings 
and Petersburg easily leads the State. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That section 824 of the Code, as amended by the Acts of 
Assembly, 1912, page 78, be further amended so as to provide 
that when application is made to the judge of the circuit court 



240 The Public Schools of Virginia 

for the appointment of an attorney to examine the title of land 
that it is proposed to purchase for school uses, that such ap- 
pointment be not made unless and until the division superin- 
tendent shall have filed in writing his approval of the site which 
it is proposed to purchase. 

2. That the State Board of Education adopt a regulation 
requiring not less than two acres of ground for each building 
hereafter erected, provided that for reason the State Board of 
Education may waive this requirement. 

3. That a law be enacted making it illegal for any school 
board to issue a warrant in payment for the erection or remodel- 
ing of any school building until the division superintendent has 
certified to the clerk of the board in writing to the effect that 
he had examined and approved the plans and specifications for 
the proposed building or remodeling. 

4. That a law be enacted requiring that 20% of the contract 
price of every building erected for school purposes be with-held 
until there is filed a statement in writing from a duly author- 
ized representative of the State Board of Education to the effect 
that he had examined the building and found it to be according 
to the plans and specifications and that the workmanship is 
satisfactory. 

5. That a Supervisor of Buildings be employed by the State 
Board of Education to devote his entire time to the inspection 
of plans and specifications for school buildings and the inspec- 
tion of same when erected and that it be illegal for any building 
to be erected until his approval of the plans and specifications 
is filed in writing with the division superintendent. 

6. That the State Board of Education adopt regulations 
fixing certain minimum standards for school building equip- 
ment with suitable provisions to ensure the presence of such 
equipment in all buildings as rapidly as possible. 

NOTE ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED IN RATING THE SCHOOL PLANT 

For the intensive investigation of non-city school buildings 
eighteen counties were selected on the basis of all records available. 
The counties selected were Albemarle, Amelia, Appomattox, Caroline, 
Carroll, Charlotte, Giles, Greensville, Henrico, Henry, Isle of Wight, 
Lancaster, Northampton, Rockbridge, Rockingham, Smyth, Stafford 



Buildings, Grounds and Equipment 241 

and Wise. Those counties contain 834 white schools and 303 colored 
schools — total 1,137. Of those 407 white schools and 167 colored schools 
were investigated — total 574. Care was taken to include typical 
one-room schools, two-room schools, three-room schools, and schools 
having four or more rooms in proper proportion. There can be little 
doubt that the schools investigated are fairly representative of non- 
city schools throughout the State. 

The various items of the school plant rated by the investigators 
are shown in Table 104. They were rated each on a scale of A, B, C, 
D or E as indicated in that table. In general, those ratings may be 
interpreted roughly as follows : A indicates that for the item involved 
the school is thoroughly acceptable and meets well good standards as 
recognized throughout the country; E indicates that for the item 
involved proper provision is either lacking or thorouthly unsatis- 
factory ; C indicates a condition average-fair; B and D indicate condi- 
tions intermediate between A and C or between C and E respec- 
tively , D commonly indicates conditions approaching those thoroughly 
unacceptable. 

The staff of building examiners included four of the State super- 
visors, four members of the faculties of State normal schools, 
and Mr. Jackson Davis, Field Agent for the General Education Board. 
All of these are thoroughly familiar with State conditions. In their 
judgement the schools investigated are representative of schools 
throughout the State. 

To ensure all possible uniformity in rating by the different exam- 
iners definite specifications were set for rating each item and two days 
were spent in a preliminary rating of several buildings by the entire 
staff, each examiner rating each school independently. Those inde- 
pendent ratings were then compared and provision made to eliminate 
individual variations in grading as far as possible. In the judgment of 
the examining staff the individual variations of staff members were 
reduced to a minimum and the ratings given by different investigators 
are reasonably uniform. 

City school buildings were investigated by four members of the 
Survey Staff. The Strayer Score Card for City School Buildings was 
employed, with certain modifications for some smaller buildings. 

By that method a perfect score for any building is set at 1,000 
points, with definite specifications for all the various items involved in 
provision for a perfect city school building. This method has been 
employed in a great many cities of the country and reasonably accu- 
rate standards have been established. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

STATE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 

IN Virginia, as in thirty-six other States of the Union, the 
public school system is administered through centralized 
State agencies which include the State Board of Education, 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the State 
Department of Education. 

i. THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 

Provision for the State Board of Education is found in section 
130 of the State Constitution adopted in 1902. 

"The general supervision of the school system shall be vested 
in a State Board of Education, composed of the Governor, Attorney- 
General, Superintendent of Public Instruction and three experienced 
educators, to be elected quadrennially by the Senate, from a list of 
eligibles, consisting of one from each of the faculties, and nominated 
by the respective boards of visitors or trustees of the University of 
Virginia, the Virginia Military Institute, the Virginia Polytechnic 
Institute, the State Female Normal School at Farmville, the School for 
the Deaf and Blind, and also of the College of William and Mary so 
long as the State continues its annual appropriation to the last named 
institution. 

"The board thus constituted shall select and associate with itself 
two division superintendents of schools, one from a county and the 
other from a city, who shall hold office for two years, and whose powers 
and duties shall be identical with those of other members, except that 
they shall not participate in the appointment of any public school 
official. 

"Any vacancy occurring during the term of any member of the 
board shall be filled for the unexpired term by said board." 

Thus the State Board of Education is composed of eight 
members, chosen in three different ways — three being ex-officio 
members and owing their position on the board to popular vote 
for other offices, three being chosen by the Senate from nomi- 
nated members of the faculties of State institutions, and two 
being chosen by those six ex-omcio and representative members. 

According to accepted standards and best practice, the 
method at present employed for the organization of the State 
Board of Education in Virginia is open to severe criticism in the 
following respects. 



State Organization and Administration 243 

(1). With its present organization the State Board of Educa- 
tion as a whole has no official responsibility either directly to 
the people or indirectly to them through any single branch of 
the State government. Of the three ex-officio members the 
State Superintendent is directly responsible to the people, 
while the governor and attorney-general are also responsible 
to the people but primarily for duties other than those as mem- 
bers of the Board of Education. On the other hand, the repre- 
sentative members of the board owe responsibility directly to 
the Senate and to the trustees of their respective institutions. 
Finally, the two division superintendents as members of the 
board owe direct responsibility to the other six members of the 
board and (perhaps more practically than theoretically) to the 
citizens of their own divisions. It would be difficult to devise a 
plan by which the definite location of responsibility could be 
more completely obscured. 

(2). With the exception of the State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction the ex-officio members of the Board owe 
their position thereon to election on the basis of fitness for other 
governmental duties. It cannot be expected that they will 
always be men well suited for membership on that board or 
especially interested in the work of the public schools. 

(3). Ex-officio membership always means the presence on 
the board of men who owe their position to political factors. 
That does not mean that such members are necessarily affected 
by political influences in their board activities, but it does mean 
that the practice makes possible the introduction of political 
influence in educational matters. Instances have not been 
unknown in Virginia. 

(4). The presence of institutional representatives on the 
board is contrary to sound policy because: (a) it violates a 
fundamental principle of governmental administration by per- 
mitting institutional representatives to participate in the deter- 
mination of State educational policies which may easily affect 
their own institutions (e.g., policies involving teacher training 
and certification, the standards for accrediting high schools); 
(b) it is based on the theory that a State Board of Education 
should be in part an "expert" board, and on the assumption 



244 The Public Schools of Virginia 

that college officers are commonly "experts" in public school 
education and its administration — neither of which assump- 
tions is sound. All modern standards call for a "lay" board of 
education. 

(5). Provision for the presence of division superintendents 
on the board further violates the principle that the board should 
be "lay" rather than "expert" or representative. It also violates 
the principle that "special interests" should not participate in 
the determination of State policies designed to control their 
own activities. 

(6). Accepted standards and the best practice demand that 
the State Superintendent should not be a member, much less 
the presiding officer, of the State Board. 1 

(7). Experience throughout the country has shown that the 
continuity of educational policies and efficiency in administra- 
tion are best conserved when membership on the State Board 
is so arranged that its change is gradual rather than periodic. 
This is accomplished by providing for a"revolving" board, i.e., 
a board the members of which enter and leave office at different 
times. Under present provisions the membership of the State 
Board tends to remain relatively constant for four years (except 
for the two division superintendents) and then to change 
abruptly, except as the members may be reappointed. Pro- 
vision should be made for a "revolving" board in Virginia. 

(8). Any board composed of an even number of members is 
undesirable because of the difficulties of a tie vote on any impor- 
tant question. 3 

Of the thirty-eight States which have State boards of educa- 
tion eight have ex-officio boards. Of the other States twenty- 
eight have appointed boards, twenty-two giving the appointive 
power to the Governor, four giving it to the State legislature, 
one giving it to popular vote, and one State giving that power 
to the State superintendent. Thus it is seen that the commonest 
practice is to eliminate provisions for ex-officio or representa- 
tive membership and to have the board of education appointed 
by the governor, thereby reducing the danger of political 
influence and centering responsibility where it is definitely and 

1 See Section ii. of this chapter. 

» E. g., The 1915-16 deadlock on text-book adoptions. 



State Organization and Administration 245 

clearly located. The obviously political possibility that the 
Governor may "pack" the board may easily be avoided by 
provision for a board "revolving" in such a fashion as to 
preclude the appointment of a majority of the members of the 
board during the governor's term of office. 

The Survey Staff recommends a revision of the State Con- 
stitution and of the State law so as to provide for a State Board 
of Education composed of seven members, one to be appointed 
by the governor each year, to hold office for seven years. That 
board should be essentially a lay board exercising general 
legislative and judicial supervision over public education, and 
should employ the State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
as its administrative and executive officer. Its powers and 
duties should be much the same as at present, except (a) it 
should take over the duties of the present Virginia Normal 
School Board (Cf . Chapter VIII) ; (b) it should have the power 
and duty to prepare a list of eligible candidates or approve 
candidates for the positions of division superintendents, but 
should not appoint those officers (cf. chapters XIX-XX); (c) 
it should have the power and duty to select the State Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction (cf. section n of this chapter); 
(d) it should be limited in its power to initiate purely profes- 
sional measures or to interfere directly in the administration 
of purely professional matters (cf. section n of this chapter). 

U. THE STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

In thirty-three States of the Union the State Superintendent 
of Education is elected by popular vote, in ten States he is 
appointed by the Governor, and in five States he is appointed 
by the State Board of Education. 1 

In Virginia the election of the State Superintendent of Public 

Instruction by popular vote is provided for in section 131 of 

the State Constitution (1902) . 

"The Superintendent of Public Instruction, who shall be an exper- 
ienced educator, shall be elected by the qualified voters of the State 
at the same time and for the same term as the Governor. Any vacancy 
in said office shall be filled for the unexpired term by the said board. 
"His duties shall be prescribed by the State Board of Education, 
of which he shall be ex-officio president; and his compensation shall 
be fixed by law." 

1 Ten States have no State Board of Education, so that appontmen 
by the State is found infive of the thirty-eight possible cases. 



246 The Public Schools of Virginia 

In spite of the rather general practice of selecting a State 
Superintendent by popular vote the practice is unsound in 
almost every way and is rapidly giving way to the practice of 
making the State Superintendency an appointive office in the 
charge of the State Board of Education, the principal reasons 
against the older practice and for the newer being as follows: 

(1). Present practice in Virginia makes the highest educa- 
tional office involving professional requirements a matter of 
politics, and, as a necessary result, the candidate for election 
or re-election to the superintendency is constantly encouraged 
(if not almost forced) to be guided in part by the dictates of 
political expediency rather than by the dictates of sound educa- 
tional policy. The present plan exposes the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction to strong political influences, which must to 
some extent determine his acts or interfere with his duties. 

(2). More and more the State superintendency is demanding 
a high degree of professional and expert services. That con- 
sideration is placed in the background when the superintendent 
is elected by the people on a political ticket. Success in securing 
election is dependent less on the candidate's ability to admin- 
ister a system of education than to conduct a political campaign. 
The two qualities are rarely united in one man. Professional 
experts, of whom the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion is one, should never be elected by popular vote, but should 
be selected indirectly by the people through their representa- 
tives, who have the opportunity to examine and judge the 
candidates' qualifications. 

(3). Present practice in Virginia causes a most peculiar and 
undesirable complexity of relations between the State Board 
of Education and the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion. The latter is elected by the people; his duties are pre- 
scribed by the Board (of which he is a member and ex-officio 
president), and his salary is determined by the General Assem- 
bly. Thus the State Board has the power to fix the duties of 
the State Superintendent, but has no direct power to compel 
him to carry out its instructions. On the other hand the State 
Superintendent, as the directly elected representative of the 
people, and perhaps elected on the platform of a definitely 



State Organization and Administration 247 

pledged educational program, may find the fulfilment of that 
pledge absolutely blocked by a State Board of Education, 
which owes direct responsibility to no one in particular. 

(4). Arising out of this complexity of relations between the 
co-ordinate authorities of the State Board and the State Superin- 
tendent is the fact that no clear line of distinction is or can be 
drawn between their proper duties and powers. Thus, on the 
one hand, the superintendent is called upon as a member of 
the board to determine in part duties which as superintendent 
he is called upon to carry out, and, on the other hand, the State 
board attempts to deal with the details of matters which should 
be left entirely in the hands of the superintendent and his corps 
of experts in the Department of Education. A proper division 
of the legislative and judicial functions of the board and the 
technical and executive duties of the superintendent is 
impossible under the present plan. 

(5). The popular election of a superintendent requires the 
selection of a resident elector of the State. The number of men 
well qualified to head the educational system of a State like 
Virginia is not large and the field of choice should not be unneces- 
sarily limited. In other States, (e.g. , New Jersey, Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire) it has sometimes been found necessary or 
desirable to select a superintendent from without the State. 
Virginia should be able to select the best man available wherever 
he may be found. 

(6). The popular election of the State superintendent limits 
the number of available candidates to those able to finance a 
State-wide political campaign, to those able to secure political 
support (seldom without incurring political obligations), and 
to adherents of the dominant political party or faction. 

(7). The State Constitution ordains that the superintend- 
ents salary shall be set by law. The law fixes his salary at 
$3,500 and provides that it shall not be changed during the 
term for which he is elected. Two criticisms may be offered, 
(a) The salary provided is too low — actually lower than the 
salaries of division superintendents in some cities of the State. 
In the long run Virginia cannot hope to secure and retain the 
services of a high-grade State superintendent at a salary of less 



248 The Public Schools of Virginia 

than five thousand dollars, (b) As long as the superintendent 
is chosen by popular election a definite salary must be set by 
law and provision must be made to prevent any change in that 
salary during the term for which he is elected. Such provisions, 
however, necessarily limit the choice of a man for the highest 
educational office in the State. 

In view of these facts the survey staff recommends that the 
State Constitution and the State Law be amended so as to 
provide for the appointment of the State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction by the State Board of Education, his term 
of office to be five years, his salary to be determined by that 
board without restriction, his selection to be determined with- 
out reference to place of residence, and his relation to the board 
to be that of its administrative and executive officer. 

hi. — THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

The State Department of Education 1 in Virginia at present 
comprises the following staff and divisions: 

1. The Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

2. First clerk, acting as the Secretary of the State Board 

of Education. 

3. Second clerk, acting as auditor-statistician and financial 

agent. 

4. Assistant clerk. 

5. Supervisor of teacher certification. 

6. Supervisor of high schools. 

7. Supervisor of Agricultural Schools. 2 

8. Supervisor of Trade and Industrial Education. 3 

9. Supervisor of Home Economics Education (part time). 8 

10. Supervisor of Graded Schools. 

11. Supervisor of rural white schools.* 

12. Supervisor of colored schools. * 
Five stenographers. 

One messenger. 

I Using the term here in its popular and narrower sense as excluding 
the State Board of Education. 

II Salaries and expenses paid in part by the Federal Board of Voca- 
tional Education. (Smith-Hughes). 

* Salaries and expenses paid in part by the General Education Board. 



State Organization and Administration 249 

Such provision compares very favorably with provisions in 
other States. Nevertheless, a few recommendations are impor- 
tant. 

(1). The conditions of school buildings shown in Chapter 
XVII suggest the necessity of a supervisor of school buildings 
and grounds to devote his entire time to their supervision. 

(2). The condition of school hygiene, physical education, 
and the need for medical inspection suggest the imperative 
need of a full time supervisor either entirely under the direction 
of the State Board of Education or in co-operation with the 
State Board of Health. (Cf. Chapter XII). 

(3). There is need of a supervisor qualified to deal with the 
problems of educational tests and measurements and with the 
problems of exceptional children. 

(4). The Second Auditor of Virginia, elected by the General 
Assembly, and entirely independent of the State Board of 
Education and the State Department of Education, has vir- 
tually no duties other than accounting for the school funds and 
keeps a set of books practically identical with the financial 
officer of the State Department of Education. Some way 
should be found to eliminate the waste caused by this duplica- 
tion of effort. 

(5). One of the greatest difficulties encountered in the man- 
agement of school finance is that involved in the handling of 
funds by local officials. Great confusion is often involved and 
sometimes actual loss is incurred through a lack of uniformity 
in accounting through change in officials, and occasionally 
through the inability of local officers to manage school funds. 
The appointment in the State Department of Education of a 
traveling auditor would lead to much greater efficiency and in 
the long run would probably result in an actual saving of money. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State Constitution and the State law be so 
amended as to provide for a State Board of Education, con- 
sisting of seven members appointed by the Governor, by and 
with the consent of the Senate, one member of that board to be 



250 The Public Schools of Virginia 

appointed each year to serve for seven years — members of the 
board to receive actual expenses for travel, etc. incurred in the 
service of the board and a per diem allowance of eight dollars. 
That board should be essentially a lay board. 

2. That the State Board thus constituted exercise the same 
duties and powers as at present except: (a) that it assume the 
duties of the present State Normal School Board; (b) that it 
cease to appoint division superintendents, confining its powers 
and duties to their approval or to the maintenance of a list of 
those eligible to be division superintendents; (c) that it shall 
select the State Superintendent of Public Instruction; (d) that 
it be limited in its power to initiate purely professional measures 
or interfere directly with the administration of purely profes- 
sional and technical matters. 

3. That the State Constitution and the State law be so 
amended as to provide for the appointment of the State Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction by the State Board of Educa- 
tion. 

4. That in the selection of the State Superintendent the 
State Board be unrestricted by requirements as to place of 
residence or the amount of salary to be paid. 

5. That the State Superintendent be a non-voting attendant 
at all meetings of the Board of Education (except those involv- 
ing his own tenure of office or salary) with power to initiate 
business and to discuss all matters, but not to vote thereon. 

6. That the functions of the State Board be essentially 
legislative and judicial and that the functions of the superintend- 
ent be essentially administrative and executive. 

7. That the State Department of Education be enlarged to 
include (a) a supervisor of buildings; (b) a supervisor of school 
hygiene, physical education, and medical inspection; (c) a 
supervisor of educational tests and measurement and of the 
education of exceptional children; (d) a traveling auditor. 



CHAPTER XIX 

SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN COUNTY 
AND DISTRICT 

VIRGINIA belongs to that relatively small group of States 
which provides for school administration in non-city dis- 
tricts through a combination of county and district units of 
organization, and through administrative agencies, some of 
which represent the entire county, while others represent dif- 
ferent districts of the county. Their complex interrelations in 
Virginia will appear in the following outline of the functions 
which appertain to: (i) the School Trustee Electoral Board; 
(ii) the District Boards of School Trustees; (iii) the County 
School Board; (iv) the Division Superintendent of Schools. 

i. THE SCHOOL TRUSTEE ELECTORAL BOARD 

The central agency of county school administration in Vir- 
ginia is the School Trustee Electoral Board, composed of (1) 
the division superintendent (appointed by the State Board of 
Education and ex-officio clerk of the Electoral Board), (2) the 
Commonwealth's Attorney (elected by the people), (3) one 
resident voter of the county (appointed by the judge of the 
Circuit Court). All district agencies for school administration 
in the county are subordinate to this board. 

It is to be noted that this board is composed of three men, 
only one of whom (the Commonwealth's Attorney) is directly 
responsible to the people of the county, and that his responsi- 
bility is primarily and principally for duties other than those 
of school administration. Further, all district board members 
are appointed by this electoral board, so that the participation 
of citizens in the county's school administration is practically 
nil. 1 Finally it is to be noted that the chief school officer of the 
county owes no legal responsibility to the other school authori- 

1 When towns of 500 inhabitants constitute a single school district 
the town council has the power to appoint the school trustees. (Revised 
Code, Section 668.) 



252 The Public Schools of Virginia 

ties or to the people except in the most indirect fashion through 
the State Board of Education, which itself is responsible to 
the people of the State only in the most partial and indirect 
way. 

The duties of the County Trustee Electoral Board are few, 
but its power therein is absolute. Its primary duty (and its 
principal reason for existence) is the appointment of district 
school trustees. Having performed that duty by the appoint- 
ment annually of one trustee for each school district in the 
county it has nothing else to do unless there arises some appeal 
from the decision of a district school board. When such an 
appeal is made the electoral board proceeds to perform its 
second (its only other important) duty and sits as a judicial 
tribunal to pass on the acts of its own appointees. Its decisions 
on such appeals according to law are final. The absurdity of 
such a procedure is increased by the fact that the acts of the 
district trustees have in many cases been the result of carrying 
out policies recommended by the division superintendent, him- 
self a member of the court of appeals but owing no responsi- 
bility to it. 

As a matter of fact the County Trustee Electoral Boards 
exist primarily as one set of the wheels within wheels involved 
in the highly centralized school organization of the State and 
were created largely to make possible the present system of 
county-district administration. Below is recommended a reor- 
ganization of county administration which would render unnec- 
essary those extra hundred boards and thus eliminate two 
hundred superfluous school authorities. 

U. — DISTRICT BOARDS OF SCHOOL TRUSTEES 

The State Constitution provides that each magisterial district 
in a county shall constitute a separate school district, unless 
otherwise provided by law, and that in each school district 
three school trustees shall be appointed. The State law (section 
668 of the Revised Code) provides that each magisterial district 
shall constitute a separate school district unless the State Board 
of Education shall provide for redistricting any county where the 
interests of the schools require it, but that a town of more than 
five hundred inhabitants may, if the council so elect, be consti- 



Administration in County and District 253 

tuted a single school district. It also makes elaborate provision 
for optional sub-districts — which provision, however, heretofore 
has served no other purpose than to occupy about nine pages 
of the code. 

As a general rule school districts are co-extensive with the 
magisterial districts, the number ranging from two districts to 
ten districts to a county, as indicated in Table 113. Thus for 
schools in the counties of the State there are 498 district boards 
and 100 trustee electoral boards, or a total (not including county 
school boards) of 598 separate boards, engaging the services of 
1494 district trustees and 200 trustee electoral board members 
(exclusive of division superintendents), or a total of 1694 school 
board members. 

Such a multiplicity of school boards serves only to complicate 
school administration, to produce a wide variety of educational 
conditions, and to cause gross inequalities of educational oppor- 
tunity in different parts of the same county. 

At present the district boards as a group operate very ineffec- 
tively. They constitute the only local agencies of administra- 
tion and are legally invested with many important duties and 
powers, some of which are carefully exercised while others are 
conveniently neglected, in epite of legal provision for severe 
penalties in some cases. For instance, a school trustee who 
employs a teacher without contract or a proper certificate is 
personally liable to refund any public money paid to that 
teacher. Yet division superintendents report that such pro- 
visions are violated to a greater or less extent in twenty-five 
counties. Again, the law provides that district school boards 
shall meet regularly at fixed intervals. Division superintend- 
ents report that such provision is commonly not observed in 
sixty-one counties. Further, the law provides that there shall 
be recorded in the minutes the authorization for payment of all 
bills and that on each warrant shall be indicated the purpose 
for which it is issued. Division superintendents report those 
provisions as more or less commonly ignored in fifty-six counties. 
Other important legal provisions are met or neglected as 
indicated in Table 114. 

In the reorganization of county administration recommended 
in a later part of this chapter all district school boards are 



254 The Public Schools of Virginia ' 

elimiDated, the total number of non-city school boards reduced 
from nearly seven hundred to one hundred, their membership 
reduced from nearly eighteen hundred to about five hundred, 
and their efficiency greatly increased. 

Hi. — THE COUNTY SCHOOL BOARD 

The State law provides that all of the district school trustees 
of a county acting together shall constitute a body corporate 
known as the County School Board, of which the division 
superintendent is ex-officio chairman. As shown by the figures 
in Table 113 the size of a county school board varies from six 
to thirty members, exclusive of the division superintendent. 

Modern educational standards and the best practice would 
lead one to the expectation of finding in these County School 
Boards the principal agencies for guiding school administration 
in their respective counties. As far as any legal provisions are 
concerned, quite the contrary is the case, the only important 
duties and powers legally invested in such boards being those 
which deal with school finance. 

In the absence of any legal provision and to some extent in 
the absence of legal authority therefor many progressive county 
school boards have made a beginning of determining educational 
policies for their entire counties, e.g., with respect to length of 
the school term, qualifications of teachers, a salary scale for 
teachers, the purchase of supplies for the schools in various 
districts of the counties. 

In spite of such development it must be recognized that, as 
at present organized and as now limited in its legal powers, the 
county school board is an ineffective agency of county school 
administration, since its control even of school finance is limited 
to State and county funds and cannot prevent gross inequalities 
of school support in various parts of the same county. 

The proper place and functions of a County School Board 
are outlined in the reorganization recommended in a later part 
of this chapter. 

iv. THE DIVISION SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 

By constitutional provisions (Section 132) the State Board of 
Education may, in its discretion, divide the State into appro- 
priate school divisions (comprising one or more counties or 



Administration in County and District 255 

cities), and is required to appoint for each such division a 
superintendent of schools. In accordance with those constitu- 
tional provisions and in accordance with the provisions of the 
law (Revised Code Section 604) the State board has created 
eighty-six non-city division and twenty city divisions. Of the 
non-city divisions, seventy-three are constituted of single coun- 
ties each, twelve are composed each of two adjacent counties, 
and one division includes three counties. For each of those 
divisions is provided a superintendent of schools. 

(a). The Appointment of Superintendents: All division 
superintendents (non-city and city) are appointed by the State 
Board of Education according to constitutional provisions, 
neither the school authorities of counties, districts, and cities, 
nor the people thereof having any legal authority, direct or 
indirect, in their selection and appointment. 

This method of selecting division superintendents is thor- 
oughly contrary to accepted standards and the best practice. 
For the most part objections are best considered in connection 
with the reorganization recommended in section v. of this 
chapter. Here, however, may be considered one very impor- 
tant objection. 

Division superintendents are appointed "within thirty days 
before April first" in the same year in which the primaries are 
held for the election of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction, the Attorney-General, and the governor. Those 
members of the State Board entitled to vote on the election of 
division superintendents are three institutional representatives 
and three ex-officio members — the three State officers mentioned. 
The encouragement thus offered to the ex-officio members of 
the board to straighten their political fences in any county or 
city in the State is unsurpassed, as far as educational agencies 
are concerned, in any State. The opportunities have not been 
entirely overlooked in Virginia. The fact is that the presence 
on the board of politically elected ex-officio members and their 
participation in the selection of division superintendents makes 
the injection of political influence inevitable. Present legal 
provisions are thoroughly vicious. 

(b). Qualifications of Division Superintendents: The State 
law and regulations of the State Board of Education set mini- 



256 The Public Schools of Virginia 

mum qualifications for eligibility to the office of division superin- 
tendent. Reduced to their lowest terms those requirements 
mean that any man is eligible to that office who: (1) has had 
three years of experience as a teacher, supervisor, or principal, 
and who holds at least a "First-Grade" certificate 1 ;or (2) has had 
at least two years of normal school or college training, including 
at least three hours of professional study of education each 
week throughout each session, but with or without any experi- 
ence whatever in teaching; or (3) is a college graduate, but with 
or without any experience in teaching; or (4) is already a divi- 
sion superintendent. The low character of those requirements 
is equalled only by the low salaries paid in most non-city 
divisions. 

The low character of the minimum qualifications does not 
mean that in all cases the men actually appointed are not 
qualified for their tasks. In most divisions of the State are 
found capable superintendents and in general the academic 
education of division superintendents is far above the minimum 
requirements set, as is shown by the figures presented in Table 
115. Nevertheless it is true: (a) that present requirements set 
a very low standard in general; (b) that they minimize the 
importance of professional training and actual school experience; 
and (c) that they permit the appointment or continuance in 
office of men thoroughly unqualified for the position of division 
superintendent. The fact is that the State, as a whole, has only 
recently begun to recognize that the division superintendent need 
be anything else than a good business man, capable of adminis- 
tering the material and business phases of school management. 

(c). Duties and Powers of the Division Superintendent: The 
division superintendent is an officer of the State Board of Educa- 
tion. His duties and powers are prescribed by that board and 
he is responsible to it for general supervision of those phases of 
school administration under charge of the State Board. He is 
ex-officio a member and clerk of the School Trustee Electoral 
Board and is also ex-officio president of the County School 
Board, but otherwise he owes no direct responsibility to county 

1 A "First-Grade" Certificate is really about fifth or sixth grade, 
being next to the lowest of seven grades of certificates. Cf. Chapter 
IX. 



Administration in County and District 257 

or district authorities except as their participation in the pay- 
ment of his salary may affect his actions. In his relations to the 
district trustees he can act solely as an advisor where the law 
or regulations of the State Board are not concerned. Except in 
such cases there is no way in which unified action can be ensured 
in school administration since there is no direct responsibility 
on the part of the superintendent to the various county or 
district boards nor is there any direct responsibility on the part 
of those boards to the superintendent. This division of uncorre- 
lated authority and responsibility is one of the greatest factors 
interferring with education in the counties of Virginia. 

(d). Salaries of Division Superintendents: Section 626 of the 
Revised Code provides that the division superintendent shall 
receive out of the State school fund: 

". . . . forty dollars for every thousand of population under his 
jurisdiction for the first ten thousand; twenty-five dollars for every 
thousand in excess of ten up to, and including, thirty thousand; and 
fifteen dollars for every thousand in excess of thirty thousand, reject- 
ing in each case fractions of less than five hundred, provided, that the 
pay of a superintendent from funds in the State treasury shall not, 
in any case, be less than four hundred and fifty dollars a year. 

The board of supervisors of any county, or the council of any 
city, may, out of any surplus of any funds in the treasury. ... or 
the county or city school board may, out of local school funds, sup- 
plement the salary of the superintendent of schools .... pro- 
vided that the salary of any such division superintendent shall not be 
increased or diminished during his term of office." 

Table 116 presents figures showing for 1918-19 the salaries 
received by division superintendents in counties. Those figures 
show that twelve division superintendents receive each an 
annual salary of less than $1,000 and that more than one-half 
receive each an annual salary of less than $1,500. 

Three criticisms are called for : 

(1). The salaries paid are so low that the State cannot expect 
to secure and retain men qualified to perform the duties which 
are or should be expected. The smallest city, with administra- 
tive duties infinitely simpler, would never think of engaging a 
superintendent at a salary as low as the salaries paid to three 
fourths of the division superintendents incounties. The salary of 
any division superintendent should be set at a minimum of $2,000. 



258 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(2). The method of determining the State's share in the 
salary of superintendents is certainly ill suited to county condi- 
tions, where the size of the division, the distribution of the popu- 
lation and the distribution of schools are factors frequently far 
more important than the size of population in determining the 
work of the superintendent and the qualifications needed. A 
better method would be to set the State's share in the superin- 
tendent's salary at a definite proportion of the amount paid, 
regardless of population, but to set a minimum for the total 
salary and a maximum for the State's contribution. 

(3). The legal provision preventing any increase in the 
superintendent's salary during his term of office makes it impos- 
sible for any of the authorities concerned to retain the services 
of a capable man who may be invited to accept another position, 
however much his services may be valued. This restriction 
serves no useful purpose and sometimes operates as a hindrance 
to effective school administration. It should be eliminated. 

V. — REORGANIZATION RECOMMENDED 

In the preceding section of this chapter an attempt has been 
made very briefly to outline the character of the present agen- 
cies for educational administration in the counties and county 
districts of Virginia. In the judgment of the Survey Staff the 
present plan is very defective and demands radical modification. 
In this section (a) the principal objections to the present plan 
are summarized, and (b) plans for reorganization are recom- 
mended. 

(a). Summary of Objections to the present plan: The principal 
defects in the present organization and the principal reasons for 
the reorganization recommended are summarized below: 

(1). The present plan involves a very complex combination 
of different boards and different officials which practically pre- 
cludes any unified efforts to administer the schools effectively. 

(2). Closely related to this is the fact that duties and powers, 
responsibilities and authorities, are so divided and distributed 
that the present plan renders it practically impossible to locate 
them. As a whole the School Trustee Electoral Board owes 
direct responsibility to no one in particular, to no branch of the 



Administration in County and District 259 

government, nor to the people. The school trustees owe direct 
responsibility to the electoral board. The superintendent owes 
direct responsibility to the State Board of Education. The 
county supervisor levies the school tax and is directly responsi- 
ble to the people. In the maze of interrelations involved it is 
totally impossible to locate responsibility. 

(3). By the present plan the people of any district or county 
are almost entirely excluded from direct or indirect participa- 
tion in the control of their schools. Their only contact with 
the administration of the schools is found in the election of the 
State Superintendent, the Governor, and the Attorney-General 
as ex-officio members of the State Board, in the election of the 
County Commonwealth's Attorney, and in the election of the 
county tax officers. 

(4). The result of this non-participation has been in many 
counties and in many districts a general apathy, ignorance, 
and neglect, as far as the schools are concerned. This would be 
the case in much greater degree if it were not for the very com- 
mendable activities of the non-official Co-operative Educational 
Association. 

(5). The appointment of the division superintendent by the 
State Board of Education and his primary responsibility to it 
renders impossible the ensurance of effective co-operation 
between him and the local school authorities. 

(6). The fact that the district trustees and the superintend- 
ents who share the management of the schools are not directly 
responsible to the people places them at a disadvantage with 
respect to local school support, as compared with the county 
supervisors who levy the tax and are directly responsible to 
the people. 

(6). Reorganization Recommended: For the purpose of sim- 
plifying county school administration, of making it more 
democratic, and of rendering it more efficient, the following 
reorganization is recommended as in accord with the best stand- 
ards and attested experience in other states. 

(1). The present School Trustee Electoral Boards, District 
Boards of School Trustees, and County School Boards should 
be abolished. In their stead should be created for each county a 
County School Board consisting of five members elected by the 



260 The Public Schools of Virginia 

voters of the entire county and from the county at large, but 
not more than two from any one magisterial district. One 
member should be elected each year to serve for a term of five 
years. He should be elected at a special school election which 
should not coincide with the election of political officers. 

(2). This reorganized County School Board should be 
invested with all powers and duties necessary for the proper 
administration of education in its jurisdiction, subject only to 
the State law and to regulations of the State Board of Educa- 
tion. It should be given full authority to manage the schools 
in its best judgment and be held solely responsible to the State 
and to the people of the county for their proper management. 

(3). To this end the County School Board should have the 
authority to select and appoint its chief administrative and 
executive officer — the division superintendent of schools. 1 Its 
appointment of superintendent, however, should be safe- 
guarded by restriction to selection from a list of eligible candidates 
prepared by the State Board of Education, or, subject to its 
approval. Subject to such restriction and to requirements for 
minimum salary it should be authorized to select a superinten- 
dent regardless of place of residence and at such salary as it may 
determine. 

(4). The County School Board should confine its functions 
to those of a legislative and judicial character, delegating to 
the superintendent functions of a managerial or executive nature 
iDvolving professional and expert knowledge, experience, or 
judgment. In particular it should delegate to him the initiative 
in and management of such matters as the courses of study, 
the selection of text-books, the nomination of teachers and their 
assignment to schools or grades. The superintendent should be 
present at all meetings of the County School Board, with power 
to participate in the deliberation of all matters not involving 
directly his own tenure and salary, but without power tc vote 
thereon. No teacher or other employee of the board should be 
appointed, promoted, transferred, or removed without his 
nomination, unless under the most exceptional circumstances. 
All such employees should be under his immediate authority. 

1 Nothing in this recommendation need operate to prevent a divi- 
sion superintendent of schools to act for two or more counties. 



Administration in County and District 261 

(5). The County School Board should have final authority, 
within legal limitations, to determine the amount of money 
necessary for the proper maintenance of the schools of the 
county, to fix the amount of money which must be raised by 
a uniform school tax on all property in the county taxable for 
school purposes, and to require the County Supervisors to levy 
a tax which will produce the amount of county funds necessary for 
current maintenance and support of schools in the entire county. 
It should distribute available State and county funds so as best 
to equalize educational opportunities for all children in all parts 
of the county. 

The present organization of county and district school admin- 
istration is unsatisfactory as judged by any accepted standards. 
The reorganization suggested is in accord with the best educa- 
tional theory and practice. There is little doubt that it would 
result as successfully in Virginia as it has in States in which 
county school administration has been thus reorganized. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State Constitution and the State Laws be so 
amended as to make possible the reorganization of county and 
district school administration recommended in this chapter as 
above and below outlined. 

2. That all school district lines be eliminated in school 
administration. 

3. That the present School Trustee Electoral Boards, Dis- 
trict Boards of School Trustees, and County School Boards be 
abolished. 

4. That in each county of the State there be established a 
County School Board consisting of five members elected by the 
voters at large and from the county at large, but not more than 
two from any one magisterial district, one member to be elected 
each year to serve for five years — vacancies for any unexpired 
term to be filled through appointment by the circuit court 
judge. 

5. That the County School Board be given legal authority, 
within such limitations as may be wise, to determine the amount 



262 The Public Schools of Virginia 

of money necessary for the proper maintenance and support of 
schools in the county, to fix the amount of money to be raised 
by county taxation for school purposes, and to require the 
County Supervisors to levy a tax which will produce the amount 
of money necessary. 

6. That the County School Board be authorized to select 
and appoint a division superintendent of schools from a list 
of eligibles determined by the State Board of Education, or 
subject to its recorded approval before appointment. 

7. That the County School Board be empowered to appoint 
a superintendent without restriction except as indicated in 
recommendation 6 above and by minimum salary requirements. 

8. That the State Board of Education establish such mini- 
mum requirements for eligibility to the position of division 
superintendent as will exclude all candidates: (a) not having 
had at least three years of experience in teaching, school super- 
vision, or school administration; and (b) not having had at 
least two years of education in normal school, or college ; and 
(c) not manifesting qualifications at least equivalent to those 
required for the holder of the present Normal Professional 
Certificate. 

9. That the minimum salary of a division superintendent 
be set at $2,000 per annum. 

10. That the County School Board provide adequate office 
room and adequate clerical assistance for the use of the superin- 
tendent of schools, preferably at the county court house or in 
a proper place conveniently located for purposes of school 
administration. 

11. That all teachers and other regular employees of the 
County School Board be appointed only on the written nomina- 
tion and recommendation of the division superintendent and 
that such teachers and employees be subject to his immediate 
authority. 



CHAPTER XX 

CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION 

THE administration of education in the cities of Virginia 

involves three principal local agencies — the City Council, 

the City School Board, and the City Superintendent of Schools. 

i. THE CITY COUNCIL 

The City Council participates in the administration of the 
city schools in two fundamentally important ways: (1) it 
appoints the members of the City School Board ; (2) it passes on 
the budget estimates of that board, determines the amount of 
money to be appropiated, and levies the tax or makes appro- 
priations therefor. Thus final control of all school matters, not 
determined by the State constitution, by State Law, by the 
State Board of Education, or by the city charter, rests in the 
hands of the City Council. 

Selection of members of the City School Board by the City 
Council is an antiquated method long since abandoned in most 
parts of the country. In almost every progressive city in the 
country the members of the school board are now either elected 
by the people or appointed by the mayor, with practice much 
in favor of the former method. The principal reasons for that 
change are given below. 

1. Nothing is gained and much is lost by making responsi- 
bility for the administration of the schools pass to the people 
from one board through a second board chosen for a multitude 
of other duties. 

2. The election and activities of the City Council involve a 
host of political influences which are in part projected into the 
administration of education wherever the council appoints the 
members of the school board. Not infrequently appointments 
to that board are more or less affected by political obligations 
incurred by members of the City Council. 



264 The Public Schools of Virginia 

3. The City Council is concerned almost exclusively with 
city affairs, while the city schools are in no small measure a 
State concern as well as city concern. 

4. Below it is recommended that the school board have the 
power to fix the amount of money "needed for the proper main- 
tenance and growth of the public schools of the city" and to 
levy the necessary tax. This cannot be done unless the board 
receives its power direct from the people and is directly respon- 
sible to them. 

The Survey Staff recommends the abandonment of the present 
practice of selecting members of the school board through 
appointment by the city council, and recommends election of 
the school board by the people. 

The relation of the city council to school finance creates 
problems of far-reaching importance. 

By law the city school board is required once each year, and 
oftener if deemed necessary, to submit to the City Council a 
classified estimate of funds needed. Whether or not such 
funds will be provided is dependent entirely on the judgment 
of the City Council. Ordinarily its judgment is not determined 
by "what funds will be needed for the proper maintenance and 
growth of the public schools of the city" 1 but according to the 
strength or weakness of competing projects, the generosity or 
parsimony of the council, or by political factors not germane 
to school administration. To obviate this objectionable diffi- 
culty it is recommended below that the City School Board be 
invested with the authority and power to fix the school tax or 
determine the amount of appropriations necessary for the proper 
maintenance of the city schools, subject only to such legal 
limitations as may be wise. 

ii. THE CITY SCHOOL BOARD 

Section 780 of the Revised Code provides that: "The council 
of each city shall appoint three trustees for each school district 
in such city, whose term of office shall be three years, respec- 
tively, and one of whom shall be appointed annually." The 
"school district" is usually co-terminous with the city ward or 

1 Revised Code, section 782. 



City Administration 265 

comprehends two or more city wards. Thus two cities of the 
State have each one school district and a school board of three 
members, six cities have each two districts and a school board 
of six members, eight cities have each three districts and a school 
board of nine members, and three cities have each four districts 
and a school board of twelve members. 

The selection of school-board members by districts or wards 
was formerly a common procedure in many parts of the country. 
Experience, however, has shown that it was very undesirable 
and the practice has long been abandoned in the great majority 
of cities throughout the country in favor of the selection of 
board members for the city at large. 

The principal reasons for that change are those outlined 
below. 

1. The city maintains its school system for the benefit of 
the whole city. Its board for school administration should not 
be organized on the assumption that members are to be chosen 
to represent the interests of wards or districts separated mainly 
for political functions. 

2. Where board members are selected to represent wards or 
districts encouragement is given to the injection of special 
interests and petty ward politics into school administration. 
This is particularly true where school board members are 
appointed by the City Council. 

3. Not infrequently district or ward representation on the 
school board leads to either or both of two evils: (a) the pre- 
vention or delay of much needed improvements in one part of 
the city through sectional rivalry or selfishness; (b) political 
log-rolling or reciprocal favors which waste school funds. 
Instances of both are not unfamiliar to citizens of Virginia. 

The Survey Staff recommends for the cities of Virginia the 
election of school board members from the city at large and by 
the electors at large. 

A second matter calling for attention in the constitution of 
city school boards in Virginia is the number of members. At 
present the number of members varies from three to twelve, 
the majority of cities (fourteen out of nineteen) having boards 
of six or nine members each. For most cities a board of three 



266 The Public Schools of Virginia 

members is probably too small, two members being able to 
block or force any measure. On the other hand a board of 
twelve members is larger than necessary and almost always 
tends to result in the distribution of duties among several 
standing committees and in an undesirable dissipation of respon- 
sibility. Finally, any board having an even number of members 
is open to objections on the ground that important action may 
be delayed or prevented by a tie vote. 

The Survey Staff recommends that in cities of less than 25,000 
population the school board be composed of five members, one 
member to be elected each year to serve for five years, and that 
in cities of more than 25,000 population the school board be 
composed of five, seven, or nine members. 

A final matter to be noted here is the fact that city school 
boards in Virginia tend to operate largely through several 
standing committees. This is a common but thoroughly perni- 
cious practice in most cities of the country, the principal objec- 
tions being those outlined below. 

1. Where standing committees are found there is an appar- 
ently inevitable tendency to delegate to minority committees 
important duties and powers which should receive the careful 
attention of the entire board. 

2. This ordinarily results in a tendency toward more or less 
perfunctory acquiescence by the board to recommendations 
and acts carefully considered by a minority of members only. 

3. Board meetings should be open to the public. Committee 
meetings are usually of a somewhat informal character and may 
be held behind closed doors. Thus personal and political 
influence can affect the action of committees much more easily 
than those of the whole board in public meeting. 

4. The appointment of standing committees is commonly 
left to the chairman of the board who may assign members in 
such a way as to serve his own ends. 

5. A common result of the maintenance of standing com- 
mittees is the exposure of individual members to influences and 
criticisms which should be applied to the board as a whole. 

6. Standing committees or their individual members fre- 
quently assume powers which should belong only to the board 



City Administration 267 

as a whole or to the superintendent. Particularly dangerous 
here is the tendency for committees or committee members to 
interfere with the details of administration or with the executive 
and professional duties of the superintendent. 

For these reasons the city school boards of Virginia should 
reform their practice of organizing the board work through 
standing committees. 

iii. THE CITY SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENT 

The city school superintendent in Virginia is selected in the 
same way and for the same term (four years) as other (county) 
division superintendents, i.e., by the State Board of Education. 
His salary also is determined primarily by the same law and 
is based on population factors, but he may receive additional 
remuneration from the city council, provided his salary is not 
changed during the term for which he has been elected. 

In the appointment of city superintendents by the State 
Board of Education Virginia employs a unique method and in 
general the provisions above outlined are contrary to approved 
principles and common practice, the principal objections being 
those outlined below. 

1. Appointed by the State Board of Education and subject 
to the local board in the majority of his duties, the city superin- 
tendent finds himself in a position of divided responsibility, 
owing his election and tenure to the State Board, a part of his 
salary to the City Council, and support in the school adminis- 
tration to the city school board. Under such conditions the 
most efficient school administration is impossible. 

2. Elected by the State Board of Education, not necessarily 
with the endorsement of the city board and occasionally in the 
face of considerable local opposition, the superintendent is 
handicapped in his work from the start. 

3. The lack of a definite division of authority and responsi- 
bility between the locally chosen board and the externally 
appointed superintendent easily leads to misunderstanding and 
prevents the definite location of responsibility. 

4. Local boards may be chosen on the basis of a definite 
educational program, the accomplishment of which may be 



268 The Public Schools of Virginia 

delayed or blocked by a superintendent over whose selection 
and tenure they have no direct control and over whose salary 
they have but partial control. 

5. Under present conditions it is legally impossible for a city 
board to increase the salary of a school superintendent during 
his term of office. Hence, on several occasions, the city and the 
state have been at a very definite disadvantage when good 
superintendents are attracted elsewhere and neither state nor 
city authorities have the legal power to meet the standards set 
elsewhere. 

The Survey Staff recommends the abandonment of the 
present practice and the appointment of the city superintendent 
by the city school board for such salary as that board may 
determine. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State constitution and the State law be so 
amended as to provide for the selection of boards of education 
in cities by popular election. 

2. That in each city of less than 25,000 population the city 
school board be composed of five members elected from the 
city at large, one member to be elected each year to serve for 
five years. 

3. That in each city of more than 25,000 population the city 
school board be composed of five, seven, or nine members to be 
elected from the city at large, one, two, or three members to be 
elected each year to serve for three, five, or seven years, accord- 
ing to the decision of the city council. 

4. That the powers and duties of such city school boards 
include all such powers and duties at present legally assigned 
to them and in addition all duties and powers over school affairs 
now assigned to the city councils, including the authority, 
within legal limits, to fix the school tax or to require the appro- 
priation necessary for "the maintenance and growth of the 
public schools." 

5. That the State constitution and the State law be so 
amended as to provide for the appointment of the city superin- 



City Administration 269 

tendent by the city school board, subject to the approval of, 
or from a list of eligibles prepared by, the State Board of Educa- 
tion. 

6. That city school boards abandon the practice of working 
through numerous standing committees. 

7. That the city school board confine its activities to legis- 
lative and judicial functions, leaving the professional and 
managerial functions of school administration to its executive 
officer, the school superintendent. 

8. That the superintendent have the power to be present at 
all meetings of the City School Board and to participate in all 
activities of the Board except those involving his own tenure 
or salary, but without power to vote. 

9. That legal provision be made for the appointment of 
teachers, supervisors, principals, janitors and all other school 
employees, by the city board only on the nomination and 
recommendation of the superintendent, and that all such 
employees be subject to his immediate authority. 



CHAPTER XXI 

FINANCIAL SUPPORT 

IV)ES Virginia invest emough money in her public schools to 
provide a satisfactory education for her citizens? How 
much money is needed annually? Does Virginia employ proper 
methods in raising school funds? Does she employ proper 
methods in distributing and expending them? What changes 
are desirable to secure better results? These are fundamentally 
important questions which must be considered in this concluding 
chapter. 

i. — DOES VIRGINIA PROVIDE SUFFICIENT 
FUNDS FOR SCHOOL SUPPORT 

According to the balance sheet for the school year ending 
June 30, 1918 the gross receipts from all sources for school 
purposes were $10,198,168 and the gross disbursements were 
$9,155,363. Subtracting from the gross disbursements (1) 
increments of the permanent Literary Fund ($161,632)', (2) 
delinquent taxes ($87,454), and (3) commissions paid to county 
and city treasurers for collecting and disbursing school taxes 
($159,103), the net expenditures for actual school use are 
reduced to $8,747,074. Detailed figures are presented in Tables 
117 and 118. 

Are such funds sufficient to provide satisfactory education 
in Virginia? 

No problem of education is more difficult than that involving 
the question of the amount of money needed to provide ade- 
quate school support? Determining factors vary widely in 
various parts of the country and in various parts of any one 
State. In Table 119 are presented the latest available figures 
purporting to show the cost of education in various parts of 
the country in 1916. Undoubtedly those figures are open to a 
wide margin of error. In so far, however, as they show the 



1 Accredited to gross disbursements but not available for expendi- 
tures. 



Financial Support 271 

facts of the case, they indicate that at that time Virginia occu- 
pied among the States of the Union thirty-ninth place with 
respect to the amount expended per capita of the total popu- 
lation, thirty-ninth place with respect to the expenditure per 
capita of the school population, and forty-first place with respect 
to the expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance. At 
that time the expenditure per capita of the total population was 
for Virginia $3 . 33 , for the country $6. 28 ; the expenditure per capita 
of the school population was for Virginia $10.97, for the country 
$23.87; and the expenditure per pupil in average daily attend- 
ance was for Virginia $21.53, forthecountry $41.72. Obviously, 
in so far as those figures represent the facts, Virginia in 1916 was 
far behind the maj ority of States in expenditure for school support. 
Since that time increased support has been provided in Virginia, 
but also in other States. There is no reason to believe that 
the relative position of Virginia has changed materially within 
the past three years, in spite of the fact that the State's expendi- 
ture per pupil in average daily attendance has increased to 
$27.49. 

For evidence of the inadequacy of school support in Virginia 
one does not need to search for external proof. An examination 
of conditions in varuious parts of the State itself shows that 
the schools are inadequately supported. Through lack of 
sufficient funds the average length of the school term is kept 
far below standard (the average being 7.3 months), 1 the pay 
of teachers is so low that teachers reasonably educated and 
properly trained cannot be secured, 2 proper supervision in 
counties cannot be provided, 3 buildings and equipment cannot 
be properly provided and cared for,« and many important 
phases of education are neglected. * 

A fair index of the present situation is found in the figures 
presented in Table 120. Those figures show that in some coun- 
ties the expenditures for instruction per white pupil enrolled 
run as low as six dollars or less, that in nearly one-fourth of the 
counties it is less than ten dollars, and that for all counties the 

1 See Chapter II. 

1 See Chapters VII-IX. 

» See Chapter XIV 

* See Chapter XVII 

• See Chapters V, X, XI, XII. 



272 The Public Schools of Virginia 

median of such expenditure is only $12.76. For colored pupils 
such expenditures run as low as $1.95 in Accomac County, are 
less than four dollars in two-fifths of the counties, and give a 
median of $4.19 for all counties. Without question at such a 
rate effective education is impossible. 

ii. HOW MUCH MONEY IS NEEDED 

Unfortunately there is no recognized formula by which the 
amount of money necessary for adequate school support can 
be determined. Current practice throughout the country, 
however, affords some empirical basis for estimating reasonable 
minima standards. 

The principal item in school expenditures is that of teachers' 
salaries, in 1917-18 involving between three-fifths and two- 
thirds of all school expenditures in Virginia, and for various 
States ranging in 1915-16 from 47 to 80 per cent of all school 
expenditures, with a median at about 58 per cent and a national 
average of 57 per cent. In 1915-16 the average monthly salary 
of teachers throughout the country was $70.21. At present it 
is probably not less than $75. per month. At the latter figure 
with a nine months standard term the average annual salary 
of teachers would be $675. 

If Virginia were to provide a uniform school term of nine 
months and were to meet the national average for monthly 
salaries with the staff of approximately 14,000 teachers em- 
ployed in 1917-18 the funds to be provided would amount to 
$9,450,000 — more than the net expenditures for all school 
purposes in 1917-18. If the State were to meet the same stand- 
ards with the number of teachers which should have been 
employed (approximately 15,000) the amount needed would 
be about $10,125,000. In Table 121 are presented figures 
showing the amount needed for instructional purposes only, 
according to the average monthly salary of teachers and accord- 
ing to the length of the school term. In the judgment of the 
Survey Staff the minimum amount of money needed for instruc- 
tional purposes only in Virginia is that amount which would 
provide an average annual salary of $675, a school term of 
nine months, and one teacher for every 30 or 35 pupils enrolled. 
In round numbers that would mean at present a minimum of 
approximately $10,000,000. 

Much the same results are obtained if we consider the cost 



Financial Support 273 

of instruction per pupil enrolled or per pupil in average daily 
attendance. In 1915-16 the average annual expenditure for 
teachers' salaries per pupil in average daily attendance was 
$23.75 for the country — in the States with best provision for 
education ranging as high as $40.00 or above. By now the 
national average is certainly above $25. — probably nearer $30. 
If Virginia had reached that average in 1917-18 she would have 
required approximately $8,000,000 for teachers' salaries alone, 
the difference between this figure and the figure given above 
being due in large part to poor attendance in Virginia. At 
the rate of $30. per pupil the amount needed would have been 
$9,520,680. x If at either rate attendance were anywhere near 
its proper status the amount would be somewhere between 
$9,000,000 and $11,000,000. In Table 122 are presented figures 
showing the amounts needed for instructional costs in Virginia, 
according to the rate of expenditure per pupil in average daily 
attendance. 

On the basis of these considerations the Survey Staff estimates 
the amount of money needed annually as a minimum for instruc- 
tional purposes in Virginia at present at between $9,000,000 
and $10,000,000. 

It should be clear that the funds needed for teachers' salaries — 
the largest and most important item in school support — ought 
always to be determined with reference to the variable factor 
of the number of children to be taught and to the minimum 
quality of instruction to be provided. The minimum quality 
of instruction which ought to be provided cannot be secured at 
a cost of less than twenty-five dollars per pupil in average daily 
attendance, if nine school months of education are to be pro- 
vided. It is recommended, therefore, that the amount to be 
raised and expended for instructional purposes in Virginia be 
not less than twenty-five dollars for every pupil in average 
daily attendance, or, if a uniform school term of not less than 
nine months (180 actual school days) is not required through- 
out the State, that the amount be set at not less than fifteen 
cents 2 per unit of the aggregate days' attendance. 

1 The citizen of Virginia who considers such a figure excessively 
high may be enlightened by enquiring the cost of tuition in the nearest 
private school. 

1 The national average was 14.82 cents in 1915-16. It is probably 
nearer eighteen cents now. 



274 The Public Schools of Virginia 

School expenditures other than those for teachers' salaries 
are in general so dependent on factors which vary in irregular 
fashion that it is practically impossible to lay down any uniform 
principle for their determination. Some may be fairly constant; 
others (e.g., expenditures for outlay, are exceedingly variable 
and practically defy prophesy. These facts, however, are clear 
from the investigation made: (1) that expenditures for general 
control in Virginia must be increased to provide adequately 
for well qualified county superintendents, supervisors, medical 
inspectors, and school nurses; 1 (2) that funds for the operation 
and maintenance of the school plants must be greatly increased 3 
(3) that greatly increased funds must be made available for 
permanent outlay in most parts of the State. 2 

All in all it is probable that the present approximate ratio 
of three to two teachers' salaries and other school expenditures 
will have to be maintained if the schools of Virginia are to per- 
form their task at all properly. 

Summarizing this consideration of needed funds we may 
make the following rough estimates of the minima funds re- 
quired on the basis of present enrollments: 

Expenditure for instruction about $10,000,000 

Other expenditures about 6,666,000 

Total funds needed $16,666,000 

Nothing less than that amount can provide the funds at 
present needed to raise education in Virginia to the national 
average. As the school enrolment increases and as new needs 
come those minima must be increased correspondingly. The 
amount of funds needed in any school year must be determined, 
not on an absolute basis, but on a relative basis determined by 
the number of children to be educated and the quality of instruc- 
tion to be provided. A method for determining the annual 
amount needed is outlined in the latter part of this chapter. 

iii. — ARE SCHOOL FUNDS PROPERLY RAISED IN VIRGINIA 

School support is provided in Virginia (a) through State 
funds, and (b) through local (county, district, and city) funds. 
In 1917-18 State funds amounted in the gross to $3,010,485 

» See Chapters XIV, XII, XIX. 
See Chapter XVII. 



Financial Support 275 

or 29.5 per cent of the total, and local funds amounted in the 
gross to $7,187,168, or 70.5 per cent of the total. Of the 
revenues available for actual school expenditures State funds 
amounted to $2,584,792 (27.1 per cent) and local funds 
amounted to $6,941,125 (72.9 per cent). Thus it is seen that 
the State's share in school support in Virginia is somewhat less 
than three tenths of the total. Figures showing the sources 
from which the various revenues are derived are presented in 
Table 117. 

(a), state school funds 

State school funds embrace the annual interest on the perma- 
nent Literary Fund, receipts from regular and special taxes, 
and receipts from appropriations. Of these sources of the 
State revenues for schools the first two deserve consideration 
here. 

(1). The Literary Fund: By constitutional provisions (sec- 
tions 134, 135, 133) the Literary Fund is set apart as a perma- 
nent and perpetual fund of which the principal must be pre- 
served intact and the annual income only be made available 
for school support. It consists of the proceeds of all public 
lands donated by Congress for school purposes, of all escheated 
property, of all waste and unappropriated lands, of all property 
accruing to the State by forfeiture, of all fines collected for 
offences committed against the State, and such other sums as 
the General Assembly may appropriate. In 1917-18 the prin- 
cipal of that fund was $3,143,504, the capital increment was 
$276,747, and the income was $106,749. 

By constitutional provisions the State Board of Education, 
subject to legal regulation, is entrusted with the care of this 
fund, but the General Assembly is directed to apply the annual 
interest. By law the General Assembly has instructed the 
Board of Education to invest "the capital and unappropriated 
income." For the most part the annual income is devoted by 
that board to the payment of operating expenses. 1 

It is a question whether Section 135 of the constitution does not 
require the annual income of this fund to be distributed in the same 
way as the constitutional tax. If so, it should be amended so as to 
place the disposition of such income in the hands of the State Board 
of Education. 



276 The Public Schools of Virginia 

(#). Constitutional and Special Taxes: Section 173 of the 
State constitution requires the General Assembly to levy a 
State capitation tax of one dollar and fifty cents per annum, 
of which one dollar must be applied exclusively in aid of the 
public schools and the residue returned to the county or city, 
in which it was collected, to be appropriated either for school 
support or otherwise as the local authorities may determine. 
In 1917-18 the available revenue from this source was $425,806. 
This tax can be counted on to supply but a very limited amount 
of school revenues. It is, in fact, a legacy of the time when 
State revenues for school support were secured in a more or 
less hap-hazard fashion and without due regard for establishing 
a logical relation between school needs and school support. 
As a supplementary means of raising school funds it is valuable. 
It cannot, of course, be considered a principal source of supply. 

The principal source of State revenues for school support is 
the school tax provided for by section 135 of the constitution. 
There provision is made for an annual tax on property of not 
less than one nor more than five mills on the dollar to be applied 
to schools of the primary and grammar grades. However, by 
statute (Revised Code Section 2205) it is provided as follows: 

All taxable real estate and all taxable tangible personal property 
and the tangible personal property of public service corporations 
(except rolling stock of corporations operating railroads by steam) and 
also the capital of merchants is hereby segregated and made subject to 
local taxation only, except that there shall be a school tax of ten cents 
on every one hundred dollars of the assessed value of said real estate, 
and tangible personal property, which tax shall be applied to the 
support of the public free schools for the equal benefit of all the people 
of the State, to be apportioned on a basis of school population. 

By this "Tax Segregation" law the principal classes of assessi- 
ble property are removed from the field of State taxation for 
school support except for the minimum one mill tax provided 
by the constitution. Thus the possible State revenues for 
school support are greatly curtailed and the clear intent of the 
constitution for a maximum tax limit of five mills on the dollar 
is practically nullified. In all probability under the present 
"Tax Segregation" law it would be difficult for the State to 
raise the amount needed if education were to be put on its 
proper footing. The law should be amended so as to fulfil the 
intent of the constitution at least. 

It is to be noted that this constitutional school tax is limited 



Financial Support 277 

in its application to "primary and grammar schools." That is a 
provision inherited from the time when high schools were con- 
sidered as luxuries, as grades more or less supplementing but 
scarcely integral parts of the public school system, and before 
the junior high school existed. It does not apply to modern 
conditions and should be eliminated from the constitution and 
from the law, necessary regulations concerning the use of such 
funds to safeguard the work of the elementary school to be 
made by the State Board of Education. 

For the school year 1917-18 the State school tax provided 
gross school revenues to the amount of $1,816,000. The consti- 
tutional limitations to the disposition of those revenues and 
the statutory limitations to their amount necessitated a special 
levy producing $635,136 for appropriations needed. 

As in all States in which little or no provision has been made 
for the equalization of rates of assessed valuation most State 
taxes in Virginia fall with very unequal burden on people in 
different parts of the State. In Table 123 are presented figures 
showing for real estate the ratio of assessed valuation to true 
valuation as reported by the Tax Commission in 1914. The 
facts there shown are too familiar to citizens of Virginia to 
require detailed consideration. It suffices here to emphasize 
two facts: (1) that the burdens of State support of education 
must always fall unequally on people in various parts of Vir- 
ginia as long as there exist no means for equalizing rates of 
assessed valuation throughout the State; and (2) the funds 
available for school support through State taxation must always 
be seriously limited as long as the constitutional rate of taxation 
is fixed and rates of assessed valuation fall far below true values. 
The problem is one of general importance, but is particularly 
important for education because the schools alone share in the 
State's taxation of real estate and certain other classes of taxable 
property. For school support it is imperative that some means 
be devised to equalize the rates of assessed valuation and to 
raise those rates within reasonable reach of true values. 

(b). local school funds 

The principal source of local school revenues must always be 
taxation. By section 136 of the constitution the following 
provisions are made for local tax levies: 



278 The Public Schools of Virginia 

Each county, city, town (if the same be a separate school district) 
and school district is authorized to raise additional sums by a tax on 
property, not to exceed in the aggregate five mills on the dollar in any 
one year, to be apportioned and expended by the local school author- 
ities of said counties, cities, towns and districts in establishing and 
maintaining such schools in their judgment the public welfare may 
require, provided, that such primary schools as may be established in 
any school year shall be maintained at least four months of that school 
year before any part of the fund assessed and collected may be devoted 
to the establishment of schools of higher grade. The boards of super- 
visors of the several counties, and the councils of the several cities and 
towns, if the same be separate school districts, shall provide for the 
levy and collection of such local school taxes. 

This provision of the Constitution has been interpreted by 
the courts to mean that for any district the combined county 
and district tax rates cannot in the aggregate exceed five mills 
on the dollar of assessed valuation. 

Here three facts should be noted: (1) that at present in near 
ly every part of the State the constitutional limit of local 
taxation has been reached long since and in several cases it has 
been exceeded (in the absence of legal protest) ; (2) in spite of 
this fact very many counties or districts are totally unable to 
provide sufficient local funds, even if assessed valuations were 
properly increased; (3) the "tax segregation" law has removed 
from the field of local taxation certain classes of property which 
were available when the constitution was adopted. In the 
judgment of the Survey Staff the present limitations to local 
taxation are very great impediments to school progress in the 
State. They serve no useful purpose and should be repealed 
at once, the amount of local funds to be raised by taxation 
being left to the judgment of the people of the county or city. 

iv. — DOES VIRGINIA EMPLOY PROPER METHODS 
OF DISTRIBUTING SCHOOL FUNDS? 

By constitutional provision (Section 135) the principal 
State school funds are apportioned to counties and cities accord- 
ing to the school population, the number of children of ages 
seven to nineteen inclusive being the basis of such apportion- 
ment. Counties apportion State funds on that basis and also 
commonly follow this practice in the apportionment of county 
funds. By law both the principal State funds and county funds 



Financial Support 279 

must be used exclusively for the pay of teachers, and by consti- 
tutional provision the major part of State funds may be applied 
solely to primary and grammar schools. 

The apportionment of school funds on the basis of school 
population was formerly the method employed in almost every 
State. It is a bad practice, however, and has been abandoned 
in most progressive states, the principal objections to it being 
those indicated below. 

(1). The distribution of funds on the basis of school popula- 
tion is grossly unfair because the number of children in the 
school population has no direct relation to the number of chil- 
dren actually enrolled in the schools or to the total amount of 
education provided. Thus in 1917-18 the number of children 
actually enrolled in the schools of Fauquier County was only 
52.5 per cent of the supposed school population, while in Dicken- 
son County 98.8 per cent of the supposed school population 
was enrolled. Likewise, in the same school year the average 
daily attendance in Fauquier County was only 30 per cent of 
the supposed school population while in Dickenson County it 
was 70 per cent. Yet each of those counties received State 
funds on the basis of the school population. Again in 1917-18 
Alexandria County with a supposed school population of 4,759 but 
with an enrolment of 2,631 and an average daily attendance 
of only 1,621 received more State aid than Alleghany County 
with a supposed school population of 4,445 but an enrolment 
of 3,244 and an average daily attendance of 2,444. Through- 
out the State the grossest inequalities of State aid arise from 
similar differences between school population, school enrolment, 
and school attendance. As a matter of actual fact the present 
method of apportionment pays a premium to counties for keep- 
ing children out of school, since funds are supplied on the basis 
of school population but expended on the basis of attendance. 

(2). Closely related to this is the unfairness which arises 
from the fact that, within certain limits, State and county funds 
are apportioned without definite relation to the amount of 
education provided, as measured by the length of the school 
term. Counties and districts having a school term of seven 
months, for instance, receive per child of school age the same 
amount of State or county aid as counties or districts having a 



280 The Public Schools of Virginia 

school term of nine months. Thus, for example, Lancaster Coun- 
ty, with an average school term of 140 days, received from the 
Constitutional tax fund in 1917-18 just as much State aid per 
child of school age as Northampton County with an average 
school term of 164 days, Henrico County with an average 
school term of 188 days, or Norfolk City with an average of 
200 days. By the present method of apportionment the State 
pays counties or cities, and counties pay districts, a premium 
for short school terms. 

(3). Again unfairness is found in the present method of 
apportionment by virtue of the fact that the adequacy of instruc- 
tion is ignored. Thus in 1917-18 Southampton County with 
one teacher for every 64 white and every 82 colored children of 
the school population received the same amount of State aid 
per child of school age as Craig County with one teacher for every 
36 children of the school population, or Albemarle County with 
one teacher for every 40 white and every 54 colored children 
of the school population. Again the State pays the county and 
the county pays the district a premium for maintaining an 
inadequate teaching force. 

(4). At present the school census is taken once every five 
years, with the result that gains or losses in population may 
frequently make the latest figures for school population very 
erroneous. Thus the school census (1915) for Newport News, 
Portsmouth, Norfolk, Petersburg, and Hopewell had little 
relationtotheschooljpopulationofthosecitiesin 1918-19. Under 
the present plan the figures on which the apportionment is 
based can be assumed correct only every fifth year. 

(5). The present method of apportionment disregards almost 
entirely the great differences amoung counties, cities, and dis- 
tricts in their ability to provide for school support out of local 
funds. The wealthiest cities and the poorest cities, the wealth- 
iest counties and the poorest counties, all receive alike the 
same relative amount of State aid. Thus considering real estate 
only we find such great differences as the following: Scott 
County and Frederick County have approximately the same 
rates of tax assessment (26.0 and 26.1 per cent respectively), 
but Scott County has only $231 of assessed real estate for each 



Financial Support 281 

pupil enrolled, while Frederick County has $1,298. Again 
Henrico County and Lee County have nearly the same rates 
of tax assessment (28.0 and 27.4 per cent respectively), but 
Henrico County has $3,230 of assessed real estate for each 
pupil enrolled, while Lee County has only $430. Finally, 
Caroline County and Norfolk City have approximately the 
same rates of assessment (50.8 and 51.3 respectively), but 
Caroline County has $639 of assessed real estate for each pupil 
enrolled, while Norfolk City has $4,182. 

In calling attention to such inequalities of wealth among the 
various counties and cities it is not intended to imply that any 
attempt should be made to eliminate that factor entirely. 
That would neither be possible nor wise. It is intended, how- 
ever, to point out that, while the majority of counties and cities 
are able to support their schools properly, others can do so only 
with a very unfair burden of local taxation, and some cannot 
possibly support their schools without special aid from the State. 
For this reason it is necessary to set apart a portion of the State 
funds to be employed in aid of schools in counties, cities, or 
districts, where adequate support of education through local 
funds, supplemented only by the regular State aid, would either 
entail excessive financial burdens or be totally impossible. 

(6). Finally, it is to be noted that the present method of 
apportionment of the State school fund makes no distinction 
between counties, cities, and districts which make little effort 
to provide proper education and those which make every effort 
to maintain good schools. Thus, in 1917-18 Grayson County 
received 69 per cent of all school funds and 87 per cent of all 
instructional funds from the State, though expending only $6.51 
for instruction per white pupil enrolled and having a very low 
rate of assessed valuation (19.1 per cent on real estate at the 
time of the report of the Special Tax Commission.) Thus 
Carroll County received 54 per cent of all school funds and 76 
per cent of all instructional funds from the State, though 
expending only $6.37 for instruction per white pupil enrolled 
and having the lowest rate of assessed valuation in the State 
(12.5 per cent on real estate at the time of the report of the 
Special Tax Commission). 1 Such counties may deserve special 

1 For other instances see Table 123. 



282 The Public Schools of Virginia 

State aid, but such aid should always be conditioned by evidence 
that the county itself is assuming a reasonable share of its 
responsibility. The State funds should be apportioned to 
counties with such limitations that no county or city can shift 
its own legitimate responsibility to the State. 

All of these defects in the present method of apportioning 
State and county funds may be remedied: (a) by providing for 
their apportionment on the basis of the aggregate number of 
days attended by pupils and of the number of teachers employed; 
(b) by providing a special State fund to assist counties or cities 
unable to support their schools with a reasonable rate of assess- 
ment and taxation; (c) by conditioning such apportionments 
to some degree on the extent to which reasonable local support 
is provided. Recommendations covering these points are pre- 
sented in the following section. 

V. — PROPOSALS FOR SCHOOL SUPPORT IN VIRGINIA 

Above it has been shown that financial support for the 
public schools in Virginia is very far from being sufficient to 
meet even minima standards, that provisions for raising school 
funds are faulty, and that the present methods of apportioning 
funds involve serious defects. It remains to suggest means by 
which remedies may be applied and school support in Virginia 
placed on a sound foundation. 

1. The primary problem of school support to be solved 
involves the amount and quality of education which should be 
provided. In the judgment of the Survey Staff the minimum 
amount of education (per year) which should be considered at all is 
nine months (180 actual school days), and the minimum quality 
should be that which can be secured at the rate for instruc- 
tional costs of twenty-five dollars, or for all costs of thirty-five 
to forty dollars, per pupil in average daily attendance. Since, 
however, the length of the school term varies widely in different 
parts of the State the minimum standard would better be 
expressed in terms of the aggregate days' attendance. On such 
a basis the minimum standard should be approximately fifteen 
cents per days' attendance for instructional costs, or twenty- 
five cents per day for all costs. 



Financial Support 283 

2. The second problem to be solved involves the proportion 
of school expenditures to be borne by the State and by the 
county or city. Virginia's present practice is, for the most 
part, satisfactory, approximately one-half of the instructional 
costs being borne by the State, while the expenses of operation, 
maintenance, and permanent outlay are paid almost entirely 
out of local funds. The only important change needed is pro- 
vision for the special relief fund mentioned below. 

3. The third problem is that involving the methods of 
raising necessary funds. Here four principal reforms are needed: 
(a) provision for carrying out the intent of the Constitution 
by restoring the five mill limit of State school taxation on real 
estate, personal tangible property, and the personal property 
of corporations in the "tax segregation" law; (b) repeal of the 
Constitutional limit of five mills for combined county and 
district taxation; (c) provision for making the county the unit 
of local administration and the primary agency for local taxa- 
tion; (d) provision for the equalization of assessed valuation 
and for a higher rate of assessment ; (e) that provision be made 
to reduce to a reasonable amount and to establish on a reason- 
able basis the commissions paid to county and city treasurers 
($159,103 in 1917-18).' 

4. A fourth problem is that of the amount of money for 
school purposes to be raised by the State. Here four general 
classes of funds are involved: (a) the general school fund for 
apportionment to county and city schools; (b) the special relief 
fund for the aid of counties or cities which cannot support their 
schools without oppressive financial burdens; (c) the fund for 
general State control, including the operation of the State 
Department of Education and other State agencies of adminis- 
tration; (d) any special funds which may be required, e.g., a 
fund to meet the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, or a 
special fund for free text-books if borne by the State. Of these 
funds (c) and (d) can best be provided in conformance with 
special budgets prepared annually. Funds (a) and (b), however, 
should be cared for by definite legal provisions. 

1 The total salaries paid to division superintendents (county and 
city) for 1917-18 were $150,661 — less than the commissions paid to 
county and city treasurers for handling school funds. 



284 The Public Schools of Virginia 

The general State school fund for instructional purposes to 
be apportioned to counties and cities should be determined on 
the basis of the minimum desirable standard adopted for 
instructional costs per pupil in average daily attendance. If 
the proposed minimum standard of $25 per pupil be adopted 
and if the State continues its present policy of providing one- 
half of the instructional cost, then the general State school 
fund will require an amount equal to the number of children in 
average daily attendance multiplied by $12 or $13. For 
reasons already given, however, it is desirable to determine 
the amount on the basis of the aggregate days' attendance. 
On that basis the general State fund will require an amount 
equal to seven or eight cents multiplied by the aggregate days 
attendance. 

It is recommended that legal provision be made for the 
annual levy of a State school tax to produce annually at least 
$13 for every pupil in average daily attendance or eight cents 
for each day of the aggregate days' attendance during the pre- 
ceding school year, $12 per pupil in average daily attendance 
or seven cents per day's attendance to be set apart for general 
apportionment as suggested below, and $1 per pupil in average 
daily attendance or one cent per day's attendance to be set 
apart to be applied to the special relief fund for needy counties 
or cities. The better method by far is that which is based on 
the aggregate days' attendance. 

It is to be noted that the method above recommended pro- 
vides automatically for the expansion (or contraction) of the 
general school fund according to the annual increase (or decrease) 
of the amount of actual instruction to be provided. This is in 
very definite contrast with the present system of a fixed one 
mill tax in Virginia or with any fixed millage tax. Whatever 
be the cost standard set the school fund should have a definite 
relation to the units involved, i.e., the number of children to be 
educated, the amount of education to be provided, and the 
quality of instruction determined upon. No fixed millage tax 
can meet those conditions from year to year. The plan pro- 
posed does. 

5. The final problem to be solved is that involving the 
method of apportioning the general State school fund and the 
special relief fund to counties and cities. 



Financial Support 285 

It is doubtful that any plan for the apportionment of State 
school funds could be worse than that now employed in Vir- 
ginia. Its serious defects have already been pointed out. It 
remains to suggest a plan of apportionment which will remedy 
those defects. To that end it is recommended : 

(a). That the general State school fund be distributed as 
follows : (i) approximately one-third to be apportioned to coun- 
ties and cities on the basis of the aggregate days' attendance; 
(ii) approximately one-third to be apportioned to counties and 
cities on the basis of the number of full time teachers employed; 
(iii) approximately one-third to be apportioned to counties 
and cities on the basis of the adequacy of local provision for 
instructional funds according to regulations determined by the 
State Board of Education or by the General Assembly. 

(b). That the special relief fund be distributed to needy 
counties and cities according to regulations to be determined 
by the State Board of Education, with proper regard to the 
available resources of such counties or cities and to the adequacy 
of local school support. 

All problems of public education ultimately involve the 
question of finance. In the long run the Commonwealth of 
Virginia must get exactly the amount and quality of education 
for which it pays. It is now paying for very limited and very 
poor education. If the State desires better education it must 
pay for it. Virginia should decide at once whether she is to 
continue her present policy or adopt a policy which will provide 
for the citizens of Virginia educational facilities at least equal 
to those provided in other States. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

1. That the State adopt a minimum standard for the average 
cost of education, that standard at present to be not less than 
fifteen cents per unit of the aggregate days' attendance for 
instructional costs (teachers' salaries), or not less than twenty- 
five cents per unit of the aggregate days' attendance for all 
school costs. 

2. That legal provision be made for State instructional funds 
to be determined annually or biennially on the basis of not less 



286 The Public Schools of Virginia 

than eight cents per unit of the aggregate days' attendance, 
seven-eighths of that fund to be set apart as a general instruc- 
tional fund to be apportioned to all counties and cities, and one- 
eighth to be set apart as a special relief fund for aid to needy 
counties or cities. 

3. That legal provision be made for the distribution of the 
general State instructional fund as follows: (a) one-third to be 
apportioned to counties and cities on the basis of the aggregate 
days' attendance; (b) one-third to be apportioned to counties 
and cities on the basis of the number of teachers employed; 
(c) one-third on the basis of the adequacy of local support 
according to regulations to be determined by the State Board 
of Education or by the General Assembly. 

4. That the special relief fund be distributed to needy 
counties and cities according to regulations to be determined 
by the State Board of Education. 

5. That the annual income of the Literary Fund be devoted 
to increasing the principal of that fund until it amounts to 
$5,000,000, after which the annual income should be devoted 
(a) one-half to increase the principal, and (b) one-half to provide 
subsidies in encouragement of special phases of education. 

6. That the Constitutional limit on local taxation be repealed. 

7. That all provisions of the Constitution or of the code 
inconsistent with the above recommendations be repealed or 
so amended as to permit the fulfilment of the recommendations 
made. 



Statistical Tables 



287 



TABLE ]« 

Showing : (A) The number of counties having various numbers of persons 
to each square mile in 1910;* (B) the number of counties in Virginia 
having in 1910 various per cents of their population rural (resident in the 
open country or in communities of less than 2,500 population) ; 3 (C) the 
number of counties having in 1910 various per cents of their population 
colored. 3 





A 2 


B 3 


C 3 


Popula- 
tion per 


Number of coun- 
ties belonging to 
each group 


i 
p. 

is 

a ia 
t-i _^ 
a>— ' 


i 

a 

3 
o 
o 

*s 

u 

|s 


1 

3 

2 a> 

ft Eh 

«« o 
*» « 

a 3 

93 o 
t- -^ 


i 



3 
o 
o 

*s 

U 
Hi 


00 


square 
mile 


o> 


u 


"3 

o 
H 


"o 

M 

a 

3 


5 or less 
6-10.... 

11-15.... 

16-20.... 

21-25.... 

26-30.... 

31-35.... 

36-40.... 

41-45.... 

46-50.... 

Over 50 




6 
18 
11 
16 
17 

7 

8 

6 

2 

9 


24 

15 

17 

18 

12 

6 

1 

3 

4 


4 

5 
13 
20 
15 
15 

9 
19 


1-10 
11-20.. 
21-30 
31-40 
41-50 
51-60 
61-70 
71-80 
81-90 
91-99 

100 


1 

2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
8 
6 
3 
72 


Lessthanl 

1.0- 4.9 

5.0- 9.9 

10.0-14.9 

15.0-19.9 

20.0-29.9 

30.0-39.9 

40.0-49.9 

50.0-59.9 

60.0-69.9 

71.7 


2 

10 

8 

5 

6 

12 

14 

11 

22 

8 

2 


1 

4 
4 

7 
1 


Total 


100 


100 


100 




100 




100 


17 



1 Tables compiled from data given in the Thirteenth Census (1910) 
Virginia Supplement. 

1 Figures for counties (exclusive of cities) enumerated in the Thir- 
teenth Census. 

' Figures for the counties inclusive of the city population. 



288 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 2i 

Distribution of the estimated population in 1917. 



SIZES OF TOWNS 
POPULATION 


Number 
of towns 


Total 
population 


Per Cent of total 
Population 




Separate 


Cumulative 


100-199 


424 

139 

87 

37 

30 

13 

13 

12 

4 

25 

18 

12 

7 

4 

18 


54,752 

32,630 

29,263 

16,590 

15,933 

8,364 

9,627 

9,966 

3,742 

30,381 

31,315 

29,286 

24,032 

18,122 

511,585 


2.5 
1.5 
1.3 
0.8 
0.7 
0.4 
0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.1 
0.8 
23.2 


2.5 


200-299 


4.0 


300-399 


5.3 


400-499 


6.1 


500-599 


6.8 


600-699 


7.2 


700-799 


7.7 


800-899 


8.2 


900-999 


8.4 


1,000-1,499 


9.8 


1,500-1,999 


11.2 


2,000-2,999 


12.5 


3,000-3,999 


13.6 


4,000-4,999 


14.4 


5,000 and over 


37.6 






Total in towns 100 
and over 


843 


825,638 
1,376,884 


37.6 
62.4 


37.6 


Total in rest of State 


62.4 


Estimated total popu- 
lation in 1917 




2,202,522 


100.0 


100.0 



1 Figures compiled from those given in the Rand-McNally Virginia 
Guide. They should be considered as approximate only, but valuable 
for general analysis. No exactness is to be expected. 



Statistical Tables 



289 



TABLE 3* 

Showing the distribution of occupations in Virginia for 1910. 



OCCUPATIONS 



Number 
engaged 



Per cent 
engaged 



Agriculture 

Mining 

Manufacturing 

Transportation 

Trade 

Public Service 

Professional Service 

Domestic and Personal Service 
Clerical Occupations 

All gainful occupations 



359,420 
13,218 

161,885 
49,033 
52,324 
10,876 
25,552 

102,841 
20,419 



795,568 



45.2 
1.7 

20.3 
6.2 
6.6 
1.4 
3.2 

12.9 
2.6 



100.0 



1 Table compiled from data given in the Thirteenth Census, Vol. 
IV, pp. 44-45. 



290 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 4* 

Showing the percentages of illiteracy in Virginia according to 
the Federal Census of 1910 





Persons over 10 years 


Children of 






of age 




ages 10-12 




a 


— . 


O) 


a 


>> 


a 


CLASSES 


83 
H 

a 


H 


S3 
.02 




~ QQ 
S3 O 


C33 




•■H 

S3 O 

"2 O. 




a> 


a> 


a) 


O "" 


a>-2 


.9 






















bO 




cA 




(H 


«H 


u 






H 




<u 


a> 


0) 




0) 


• »H 




Ph 


Ph 


Oh 


> 


Ph 


> 


Native white, native parentage 


2.4 


10.0 


8.2 


41o 


5.7 


41-42 


Native white, foreign or mixed 
















0.6 

8.7 
22.1 


2.0 

9.8 
32.8 


1.2 

9.2 

30.0 


426 


0.6 

4.2 

16.0 










40 








9.2 


17.2 


15.2 


40c 


9.2 


39 









1 Table compiled from data given in the Thirteenth Census, Vol. 
I, pp. 1198, 1209, 1231. 

a The only States with greater illiteracy for this class being: 
North Carolina (12.3%) ; South Carolina (10.5%) ; Kentucky (10.7%) ; 
Tennessee (9.9%); Alabama (10.1%); Louisiana (15.0%); New Mexico 
(15.5%). 

b The only States with greater illiteracy for this class being: 
North Carolina (31.9%); South Carolina (38.7%); Georgia (36.5%); 
Alabama (40.1%) ; Louisiana (48.4%) ; Mississippi (35.6%). 

c The only States with greater illiteracy for this class being: 
North Carolina (18.5%) ; South Carolina (25.7%) ; Georgia (20.7%) ; 
Alabama (22.9%); Mississippi (22.4%); Louisiana (29.0%); New 
Mexico (20.2%) ; Arizona (20.9%). 



Statistical Tables 



291 



TABLE 5 1 

Showing the numbers of counties in Virginia having various percentages 

of illiteracy 



Federal Census, 1910 


State School Census, 1915 




Persons over 
10 years 


Ages 
10-20 


Ages 7-19 


Per Cent 


6 


to 

U 

"o 

O 


"3 
o 
H 


Both 
races 


Per Cent 




a> 

O 

O 


"3 
o 
H 


Less than 5 

5.0- 9.9 

10.0-14.9 

15.0-19.9 

20.0-24.9 

25.0-29.9 


14 
38 
23 
17 

7 


y 

4 
13 
25 
18 
21 

7 

2 

1 


1 

5 
13 

27 
19 

27 

7 
1 


10 
41 
31 
14 

4 


Less than 1 . . . . 

1.0- 1.9 

2.0- 2.9 

3.0- 3.9 

4.0- 4.9 

5.0- 9.9 
10.0-14.9 

15.0-19.9 

20.0-24.9 

25.0-29.9 


22 
15 
20 
10 

9 
20 

4 


3 

6 

5 

8 

7 
30 
23 

8 

4 

2 

1 

1 

9.7 


5 
12 
12 

9 
15 
32 


30.0-34.9 

35.0-39.9 


1 


10 
3 


40.0-44.9 




1 


45.0-49.9 








1 


50.0-54.9 








30.0-34.9 

35.0-39.9 

Average 


3.3 




55.0-59.9 










60.0-65.3 



















5.5 



1 Table compiled from data presented in the Thirteenth Census, 
Vol. Ill, pp. 936ff., and in the Report of the (Virginia) Superintendent 
of Public Instruction, 1917-18, pp. 101-102. 

* Six counties contained each too few colored persons to warrant 
proportioning. 

* Two counties not accounted for in the State Census because of 
very small Negro population. 



292 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 6 

Showing the number of counties keeping their schools open 
for various lengths of time 1917-18 



Length of the 


All non-city schools 


One- and two-i 
schools 


■oom 


School Year 
in Months 


White 


Colored 


Both 


White 


Colored 


Both 


3.5 or less 




1 
1 


1 
1 




1 
1 


1 


3.6-4.0 




1 


4.1-4.5 






4.6-5.0 




8 

15 • 
30 
18 
14 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 


8 

15 

38 

32 

27 

27 

24 

10 

7 

5 

2 


1 

11 

22 

16 

21 

15 

7 

2 

2 

1 

1 


7 

21 

31 

13 

15 

3 

2 

1 

1 
1 


8 


5.1-5.5 




32 


5.6-6.0 


8 

14 

13 

24 

21 

8 

7 

4 

1 


53 


6.1-6.5 


29 


6.6-7.0 


36 


7.1-7.5 


18 


7.6-8.0 


9 


8.1-8.5 


3 


8.6-9.0 


2 


9.1-9.5 


3 


9.6-10.0 


2 






Medians in 
months 


7.3 


6.0 


6.9 


6.5 


5.9 


6.1 



Table compiled from figures furnished by the records of the State 
Department of Education. Cf. Report of the State Superintendent, 
1917-18, pp. 73-75. 



Statistical Tables 



293 



TABLE 7 

Showing for 748 white and 2S0 colored schools the number of non-city 
schools having in 1917-18 school terms of various lengths 





White 


Colored 


Length of the 

School Year 

in Months 


Number 


Per 

Cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 


Number 


Per 

Cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 


5 or less 

5.1-6.0 


65 
226 
266 
148 

36 
7 


8.69 
30.21 
35.56 
19.80 

4.81 
.93 


8.69 
38.90 
74.46 
94.26 
99.07 
100.00 


74 
79 
43 
22 
7 
5 


32.17 

34.35 

18.70 

9.57 

3.04 

2.17 


32.17 
66.52 


6.1-7.0 


85.22 


7.1-8.0 


94.79 


8.1-9.0 


97.88 


Over 9.0 


100.00 






Total 


748 


100.00 


100.00 


230 


100.00 


•100.00 






Medians 


6.9 months 


5.8 months 


Averages 


6.9 months 


6 . 1 months 



Table compiled from statistics furnished by the State Department of 
Education, Form T-24. 



294 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 8 

Showing the number of months contracted for with teachers for 1918-19 — 
Non-city schools 





White schools 


Colored schools 


Number of 

Months 

Contracted for 


Number 


Per 

Cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 


Number 


Per 

Cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
Per 
Cent 


5 


113 

382 

1,879 

629 

449 

12 


3.26 
11.03 
54.24 
18.16 
12.96 
.35 


3.26 
14.29 
68.53 
86.69 
99.65 
100.00 


87 

422 

354 

89 

22 

4 


8.89 

43.15 

36.20 

9.10 

2.25 

.41 


8.89 


6 


52.04 


7 


88.24 


8 


97.34 


9 


99.59 


10 


100.00 






Total 


3,464 


100.00 


100.00 


978 


100.00 


100.00 






Medians 


6.66 months 


5.95 months 


Averages 


7.27 months 


6.54 months 



Table compiled from statistics furnished by the State Department of 
Education, Form S — No. 4. 



Statistical Tables 



295 



TABLE 9 

Showing Virginia's position with respect to enrolment in 1910 



Per Cent of Children Attending 
School in the School Year 1909-10 



National 
record 



Virginia's 
record 



Virginia's 

position 

among 48 

States 



Persons 6-20 years of age 

Children 6-9 years of age 

Children 10-14 years of age 

Children 15-20 years of age 

Children 6-14 years of age 

Children of native white parentage 

6-14 years of age 

Negro children 6-14 years of age 

Children of native white parentage 

6-20 years of age 

Negro children 6-20 years of age 



62.3 
73.5 

88.2 
32.9 
81.4 

92.6 
90.9 

66.9 
47.3 



56.3 
54.0 
80.5 
35.6 
68.3 

73.2 

58.7 

61.2 

47.2 



43 
45 
40 
24 
43 

44 

42 

43 
42 



Table compiled from statistics in the Thirteenth (Federal) Census, 
Vol. I, p. 1100 ff. 



TABLE 10 

Showing enrolment and attendance in Virginia, in the South Atlantic 



States, and in the United States, 1915-16 




ITEM 


Virginia 


South 

Atlantic 

States 


United 
States 


Position 

of 
Virginia 


Per cent of children 5-18 

Number of pupils attending 
daily for each 100 en- 
rolled 


73.0 
69.8 

77.9 

98.4 


76.3 

69.4 

71.6 
93.8 


75.8 

75.5 

91.7 
120.9 


34 
34 


Average days' attendance 
for each child 5-18 years 
of age 


40 


Average days attended by 
each pupil enrolled 


35 



Table compiled from data given in the Report of the (U. S.) Com- 
mission of Education, 1917, Vol. II, pp. 72, 74, 75. 



296 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 11a 

Showing school population, enrolment, and attendance in Virginia 
from 1890 to 1918 



WHITE 


1890 


1900 


1910 


1915 


1917-18 


Total population 


b 1,020,122 


1,192,855 


1,389,809 


1,488,286 


1,527,587 


School population. . . 


c 292,569 


341,992 


398,408 


435,255 


463,242 


School enrolment 


220,210 


250,697 


282,452 


343,159 


348,918 


Average daily 












attendance 


129,973 


149,915 


186,239 


233,657 


234,725 


COLORED 












Total population. . . . 


b 635,438 


660,722 


671,096 


676,283 


678,358 


School population. . . 


c 206,200 


214,404 


217,760 


222,258 


224,958 


School enrolment 


122,059 


119,898 


119,657 


131,051 


132,316 


Average daily 














68,317 


66,549 


73,155 


83,483 


82,631 



a Table compiled from statistics of the State Department of Edu- 
cation and of the Federal Census for 1910. 

b Total population estimated for 1915 and 1917-18 on the basis of 
the average annual increase. 

c Figures for 1890 and 1900 estimated on the basis of the relation 
of school population (seven to nineteen, inclusive) to the total popu- 
lation. In 1902 the State changed the basis of school population, so 
that State figures for 1890 and 1900 cannot be compared with those 
for 1915. Figures for 1917-18 (school population) estimated on the 
basis of the average annual increase 1910 to 1915. 



Statistical Tables 



297 



TABLE 12 

Percentages based on the figures in Table 11 



WHITE 



1890 



1900 



1910 



1915 



1917-18 



Per cent of total population 

enrolled 

Per cent of school population 

enrolled 

Per cent of school population 

attending daily 

Per cent of enrolment attending 

daily 

COLORED 

Per cent of total population 

enrolled 

Per cent of school population 

enrolled 

Per cent of school population 

attending daily 

Per cent of enrolment attending 

daily 



21.6 


21.0 


20.3 


23.1 


75.3 


73.3 


70.9 


78.8 


44.4 


43.8 


46.8 


53.7 


59.0 


59.8 


62.4 


68.1 


19.3 


18.2 


17.8 


19.4 


59.2 


55.9 


54.5 


59.0 


33.1 


31.0 


33.6 


37.6 


56.0 


55.5 


61.1 


63.7 



22.8 
75.3 
50.7 
67.3 

19.5 
58.8 
36.1 
62.5 



298 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 13 

Showing the number of counties having various records for attendance in 
1917-18, as based on school population (1915) and as based on school 
enrolment. 



Peb Cent of Attendance, 
1917-18 


Based on school 
population 


Based on school 
enrolment 




White 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


15 or less 




2 

4 

10 

16 

30 

14 

9 

4 

5 

2 






16-20 








21-25 








26-30 








31-35 


3 

8 

17 

31 

19 

13 

3 

4 

1 






36- 40 






41-45 




4 


46-50 




12 


51-55 


8 
13 
29 
27 
16 
4 
2 


14 


56-60 


22 


61-65 


23 


66-70 




14 


71-75 


1 


5 


76-80 


3 


81-85 








86-90 








91-95 






1 




96-100 


1 














Number of counties 


100 


97a 


100 


97a 



a No schools for Negroes in Craig, Dickenson and Buchanan 
Counties. 

Table compiled from figures supplied by the records of the State 
Department of Education, Report of Superintendent, 1917-18, pp. 
67-69. 



Statistical Tables 



299 



TABLE 14 

Showing the per cent, of attendance (based on enrolment) for 1917-18 in 
624 white rural schools and 218 colored rural schools 





White schools 


Colored schools 


Per Cent of 
Attendance 


Number 


Per 

cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 


Number 


Per 

cent 


Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 


Under 26 


2 
2 
14 
15 
36 
62 
73 
99 
80 
71 
70 
55 
28 
16 
1 


.4 

.4 

2.2 

2.4 

5.8 

9.9 

11.7 

15.8 

12.8 

11.3 

11.2 

8.9 

4.5 

2.5 

.2 


.4 

.8 

3.0 

5.4 

11.2 

21.1 

32.8 

48.6 

61.4 

72.7 

83.9 

92.8 

97.3 

99.8 

100.0 


1 

7 

4 

10 

9 

27 

26 

25 

27 

29 

18 

14 

11 

8 

2 


.5 
3.1 

1.8 

4.6 

4.2 

12.5 

12.0 

11.5 

12.5 

13.3 

8.2 

6.2 

5.1 

3.6 

.9 


.5 


26-30 


3.6 


31-35... 


5.4 


36-40 


10.0 


41-45 


14.2 


46-50... 


26.7 


51-55 


38.7 


56-60 


50.2 


61-65 


62.7 


66-70 


76.0 


71-75 


84.2 


76-80. .. 


90.4 


81-85 


95.5 


86-90 


99.1 


91-95 


100.0 






Medians 


60 


6 per cer 


t 


61. 


7 per cer 


t 



Table compiled from statistics collected by the Survey. 



300 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



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Statistical Tables 



301 



TABLE 16 

Showing the percentages that each age group is of the average size of age 
groups for ages eight, nine, ten, eleven 





White 


Colored 


AGE 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


(Base) 1 


5,000 


6,900 


12,000 


1,600 


2,800 


4,400 


5 


13.4 
67.4 
96.2 

101.4 
99.8 

102.3 

97.9 

97.5 

89.9 

76.2 

57.8 

41.6 

22.3 

12.3 

4.7 

1.0 

.6 


28.0 

73.7 

94.2 

100.6 

102.8 

102.4 

93.3 

89.5 

80.4 

61.4 

43.9 

32.5 

16.9 

7.0 

2.1 

.6 

.2 


21.7 

70.4 

94.2 

100.1 

100.7 

102.4 

94.5 

92.1 

85.3 

67.1 

49.3 

36.0 

19.0 

9.1 

3.1 

.9 

.4 


11.6 

53.1 

95.9 

99.3 

101.4 

106.1 

90.0 

104.1 

88.4 

86.4 

62.8 

37.9 

14.5 

9.0 

2.9 

.4 

.1 


19.3 

60.3 

90.7 

102.5 

101.0 

101.0 

96.5 

92.8 

81.1 

58.5 

38.1 

23.0 

11.0 

4.9 

1.2 

.2 

.2 


16.5 


6 

7 


57.7 
92.6 


8 

9 

10 


101.3 
101.1 
102.8 


11 


94.1 


12 


96.9 


13 


83.8 


14 


68.7 


15 


47.1 


16 

17 


28.4 
12.2 


18 


6.4 


19 

20 


1.8 
.3 


Over 20 


.2 



1 Figures in this line represent the approximate average size of age 
groups for children in school of ages eight, nine, ten, eleven. Figureb 
below represent the percentages that the various age groups are of 
that approximate average in each case. 



302 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



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Statistical Tables 



303 



TABLE 18 

Showing for eighteen counties and all cities (except Richmond) the per- 
centages that the numbers of pupils remaining in school for various 
lengths of time are of the average number of those remaining one, two, 
three, and four years in school. 



Length of Stay 


White 


Colored 


in Years 


Counties 


Cities 


Counties 


Cities 


1, 2, 3, 4 


Nearly one 

four year 

103.7 

84.7 

70.7 

52.3 

37.4 

24.0 

13.9 

4.8 

3.0 


hundred per 

103.6 
89.1 
71.9 
59.1 
38.2 
26.8 
14.8 
4.6 
.8 


cent remain 

86.3 

69.0 

43.1 

29.4 

14.7 

7.5 

4.3 

1.5 

.8 


for at least 


5 


85.9 


6 


69.0 


7 


50.3 


8 


30.2 


9 


18.4 


10 


12.2 


11 


5.6 


12 


4.1 


Over 12 


6.6 







304 



The Public Schools of Virginia 






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Statistical Tables 



305 



TABLE 20 

Showing the per cent that the number of pupils in each grade is of the 
approximate average number of pupils of ages 8, 9, 10, 11 in eighteen 
counties and all cities of Virginia in 1918-19 1 . 



White 


Colored 


GRADE 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


Base 


5,000 


6,900 


12,000 


1,600 


2,800 


4,400 



Kindergarten . 

Primary 

1 



2... 
3... 

4... 
5... 
6... 
7... 
8 2 .. 
I... 
II.. 
III. 
IV. 



31.64 

229.14 

123.14 

128.06 

129.16 

106.20 

86.78 

69.62 

3.12 

31.58 

21.72 

13.90 

8.42 



14.73 


8.46 


12.70 


20.48 


150.42 


181.88 


110.41 


114.80 


114.91 


119.43 


115.16 


120.03 


113.41 


109.54 


86.99 


86.18 


69.13 


68.76 


11.77 


8.07 


54.70 


44.57 


36.24 


29.91 


23.42 


19.26 


19.77 


14.88 



28.44 

352.88 

167.44 

142.81 

124.25 

82.38 

41.94 

18.69 

.94 

3.19 

.75 



2.75 

12.21 

214.75 

148.48 

135.71 

121.89 

89.40 

57.82 

37.82 

7.36 

26.04 

14.43 

7.04 

3.00 



1.73 

18.11 

267.48 

155.36 

138.30 

122.75 

86.84 

52.05 

30.89 

5.02 

17.50 

9.45 

4.48 

1.91 



1 Percentages above 100 in grades one to five indicate that a very 
large number of pupils have failed of promotion and have been held 
back. The number of pupils in those grades is always much larger 
than the size of any entering class. 

2 The eighth grade is a regular part of the course in a few schools, 
notably in the cities of Norfolk and Harrisonburg. 



306 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 21 

Shouting the median ages of pupils in various grades of different types of 
schools in eighteen counties and all cities of Virginia in 1918-19 



GRADE 



Standard 



White 



Colored 





a 


U 


>> 


a 


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o 


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o 


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1 


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7.5 

8.5 

9.5 

10.5 

11.5 

12.5 

14.5 

15.5 

16.5 

17.5 


7.5 
8.5 
9.5 
10.5 
11.5 
12.5 
13.5 
14.5 
15.5 
16.5 
17.5 


7.4 
9.0 
10.1 
11.4 
12.6 
13.6 
14.9 


7.3 
8.8 
10.0 
11.1 
12.3 
13.2 
14.5 
14.9 
15.8 
16.5 
17.4 


6.5 

7.8 

8.9 

9.9 

10.9 

12.1 

12.9 

14.1 

15.0 

16.0 

16.9 


8.2 
10.5 
12.0 
13.1 
14.2 
15.0 
15.1 


8.1 
10.4 
11.8 
12.8 
13.9 
14.5 
15.2 
16.1 


7.3 


2 


8.9 


3 


10.1 


4 


11.0 


5 


12.0 


6 


13.0 


7 


13.9 


I 


14.5 


II... 


15.8 


III.. 






16.6 


IV 






17.3 











Statistical Tables 



307 



TABLE 22 

Showing the percentages of pupils of normal age, under age, and over age 
(one year span) in the schools of eighteen counties and all cities of 
Virginia, 1918-19, according to the Virginia standard (entrance age 
seven) and the national standard (entrance age six). 





County schools 


City schools 


STATUS OF 
PUPILS 


a 

o 
o 

(H 

1 

CD 

a 

o 


a 

o 
o 
u 
1 

o 


a 

o 

. 2 

<x> 
H 


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»-. o 

Is 


>> 

a 

— . O 
o3 « 

o 
H 


a 
o 

aa 

ng.2 
£23 


o 

O 03 

o a+J 


>> 

3 


WHITE 

Total number. . . . 
Virg'a standard: 

Over age 

Of normal age.. 


12,607 

61.3 

20.9 
17.8 


9,236 

63.7 
20.4 
15.9 


4,736 

58.8 
23.7 
17.5 


22,634 

52.0 
26.5 
21.5 


49,213 

57.3 
23.6 
19.1 


9,814 

42.6 
31.7 
25.7 


54,525 

28.5 
30.5 
41.0 


64,339 

30.6 
30.6 
38.8 


Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


Nat'l standard: 

Over age 

Of normal age.. 

COLORED 

Total number 

Virg'a standard: 

Over age 

Of normal age.. 


82.2 

14.4 

3.4 

8,533 

77.9 

13.8 

8.3 


83.9 

13.1 

3.0 

4,395 

89.5 
8.2 
2.3 


81.5 

15.0 

3.5 

1,147 

71.1 
17.9 
11.0 


73.5 

21.1 

5.4 

1,334 

74.7 

19.2 

6.1 


78.8 

16.9 

4.3 

19,409 

80.4 

13.0 

6.6 


69.6 

22.9 

7.5 

2,175 

62.3 
23.2 
14.5 


54.2 
31.2 
14.6 

22,458 

54.9 
23.6 
21.5 


56.7 
29.8 
13.5 

24,633 

55.5 
23.6 
20.9 


Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


Nat'l standard: 

Of normal age.. 
Under age 


92.6 
7.0 
1.4 


97.7 

2.0 

.3 


90.6 
7.6 
1.8 


93.8 
5.4 

.8 


93.5 
5.4 
1.1 


85.0 

12.5 

2.5 


77.5 

15.8 

6.7 


78.2 

15.5 

6.3 



308 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 22-B 

Showing the percentages of pupils of normal age, under age, and over age 
(two-year span) in the schools of eighteen counties and all cities of 
Virginia in 1918-19, according to the Virginia standard (entrance age 
seven) and the National standard (entrance age six). 





County schools 


City schools 


STATUS OF 
PUPILS 


a 

o 
o 
(-, 
1 

a 
a 
O 


a 

o 
o 

1 

o 
is 
H 


a 

o 

• 2 

V 

H 
-q 
H 


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o £ 

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& a 


>> 
a 

3 
O 

< 


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a 

o 

as 

T3 3-03 


o 

8 , 
So.2 


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'3 

3 


WHITE 

Virg'a standard: 

Over age 

Of normal age.. 


41.5 
40.7 
17.8 


43.2 
41.0 
15.9 


36.2 
46.3 
17.5 


29.9 
48.6 
21.5 


36.0 
44.9 
19.1 


24.0 
50.3 
25.7 


12.0 
46.9 
41.1 


13.9 

47.4 
38.7 


Total... 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


Nat'l standard: 

Over age 

Of normal age.. 

COLORED 

Virg'a standard: 
Of normal age.. 


61.3 

35.3 

3.4 

61.9 

29.7 

8.4 


63.5 

33.5 

3.0 

73.9 

23.8 

2.3 


57.8 

38.8 

3.4 

50.4 
38.6 
11.0 


48.0 

46.6 

5.4 

55.0 

38.9 

6.1 


55.3 

40.4 

4.3 

63.9 

29.5 

6.6 


39.0 

53.5 

7.5 

41.4 
44.1 
14.5 


25.5 
59.9 
14.6 

33.7 

44.8 
21.5 


27.5 
59.0 
13.5 

34.4 
44.7 
20.9 


Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


Nat'l standard: 
Of normal age.. 


77.9 

20.7 

1.4 


89.5 

10.2 

.3 


72.8 

25.4 

1.8 


73.1 

26.1 

.8 


80.4 

18.5 

1.1 


61.4 

36.1 

2.5 


52.9 

40.4 

6.7 


53.7 

40.0 

6.3 



Cf. note at close of Chapter IV, and see Table 22. 



Statistical Tables 



309 



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Statistical Tables 



325 



TABLE 38 

Showing the approximate per cent of schools of various types whose 
programs show no special provision for certain subjects set by the State 
Course of Study. 



SUBJECT 



One room, 
per cent 



Two or three 

rooms, per 

cent 



Four rooms 

and over, per 

cent 



Writing 

Hygiene 

Music 

Drawing 

Nature Study 
Agriculture. . . 



20 
40 
80 
60 
84 
94 




6 

77 
52 
81 
84 






60 
35 
50 
80 



Cooking, sewing, gardening, and manual training are rarely found in 
the non-city white schools. 



326 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 39 

Showing the recitation time allotment in non-city white schools for grades 
one, five, and seven. Figures represent the median allotment in minutes 
per school day for the total recitation time of pupils in each of these 
The average length of the school day in minutes is 330. 







One 


Two 


Three 


Four 


Five to 






room 


rooms 


rooms 


rooms 


seven 
rooms 


Grade 1 


■■■{ 


55 

20 135 


95 

35 150 


103 

76 200 


111 

64 150 


170 

77 270 


Grade 5 


■■■{ 


90 

50 151 


113 

87 187 


140 

92 205 


170 

115 270 


210 

165 281 


Grade 7 


...{ 


95 

57 135 


124 

90 185 


161 

70 230 


176 

130 235 


217 

153 295 



Bold face figures in the upper centre of each space represent medians ; 
figures in lower left corners represent the minimum found; figures in 
the lower right corners represent the maximum found. 



Statistical Tables 



327 



TABLE 40 

Shouting for non-city schools of various types the percentages of schools 
having various time allotments per week in arithmetic, grades one, five, 
seven. 



MINUTES 
PER WEEK 


One 

room, 
per cent 


Two 

rooms, 

per cent 


Three 

rooms, 

per cent 


Four 

rooms, 

per cent 


Five to 

seven 

rooms, 

per cent 


Grade 1 : 
Less than 25. . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150 and over. . 
Grade 5 : 
Less than 25 . . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150 and over. . 
Grade 7 : 
Less than 25. . 

25-45 

50-70 

75-90 

100-125 

150 and over. . . . 


8 
12 
43 
23 
14 




2 
13 
55 
20 
10 


4 
9 

50 
23 
14 




12 
33 
44 
11 



6 
6 
67 
21 



4 

12 
42 
42 






4 

34 

46 

16 







11 

56 

33 





24 
76 






9 

33 

37 

21 





30 
70 





13 
87 






49 
51 






100 





13 
87 



328 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 50 

(Tables 41-^9 are incorporated in the text of Chapter VI.) 
Showing for the State the number of pupils per teacher; (a) of the total 
school population, (b) of the school enrolment, (c) of the number in 
average daily attendance. 





Pupils per teacher on the basis of 




School population 


School enrolment 


Average daily 
attendance 


School 












Year 




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91 


59 


35 


50 


29 


23 


31 


25 


1914-15... 


44 


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53 


35 


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39 


24 


31 


25 


1915-16. . . 


42 


79 


50 


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37 


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1916-17... 








33 
32 


48 
45 


37 
35 


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22 


30 
29 


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1917-18... 








23 













Table compiled from figures given in the Reports of the (Virginia) 
Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1916-17 and 1917-18, pages 147- 
149 of the Report for 1916-17. 



Statistical Tables 



329 



TABLE 51 

Comparing the Virginia record with the National record and with records 
in various sections of the country for the number of pupils per teacher 
in 1915-16: (a) on the basis of the number of children of ages five to 
eighteen in the population, (b) on the basis of school enrolment, (c) on 
the basis of average daily attendance. 



RECORDS 



Pupils per teacher on the basis of 



Children of 
ages 5-18 



Pupils 
enrolled 



Average daily 
attendance 



Virginia 

The United States.... 
North Atlantic States 
North Central States. 
South Atlantic States 
South Central States. 
Western States 



51 
43 
44 
35 
53 
56 
33 



37 
33 
32 

28 
40 
42 

28 



26 
25 
26 
22 

28 
28 
22 



Table compiled from figures given in Report of the (U. S.) Commis- 
sioner of Education, 1917, pp. 68, 73, 76. 



330 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 52 

Showing for 1917-18 in Virginia the number of counties hauing various 
records for the number of pupils per teacher: (a) on the basis of school 
population, (b) on the basis of school enrolment, (c) on the basis of 
average daily attendance. 



PUPILS PER 
TEACHER 


On the basis of 

school 

population 


On the basis of 

pupils 

enrolled 


On the basis of 

average daily 

attendance 




White 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


11- 15..... 










23 
48 
19 

8 

1 


3 


16-20 






6 
24 
34 

17 

10 

4 

2 

2 

1 


3 

5 

13 

26 

22 

9 

6 

5 

3 

2 


21 


21- 25... 


5 

14 

20 

24 

12 

14 

5 

1 

4 


2 
2 
6 
4 
6 
5 
7 
14 
7 
7 
6 
6 
5 
3 
7 
5 
4 
1 


35 


26-30 


22 


31-35 

36-40 


10 


41- 45... 


1 


4 


46-50 




51-55 


1 


56- 60. . . 




61- 65... 




1 


66-70 




71- 75 


1 






76- 80... 




1 






81- 85... 








86- 90... 






1 






91-95 








96-100. . . 






1 






101-125. . . 








126-150. . 












151-175. . . 












176-200. . . 

























Table compiled from records of the State Department of Education 
No colored schools in Buchanan, Craig, and Dickenson Counties. 



Statistical Tables 



331 



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332 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 54 

Showing the decrease in the number and proportion of men teachers in 
Virginia from 1871 to 1918 



YEAR 



White 



Colored 



Total 



Number 



Per 
cent 



Number 



Per 
cent 



Number 



Per 
cent 



1871 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 
1917 
1918 



1,616 


64.1 


325 


67.4 


1,941 


2,478 


60.8 


531 


67.6 


3,009 


2,189 


39.4 


964 


46.6 


3,153 


1,974 


29.2 


842 


35.2 


2,816 


1,527 


19.0 


535 


22.4 


2,062 


1,629 


15.1 


455 


15.3 


2,084 


1,372 


12.3 


415 


14.2 


1,787 



64.6 
61.9 
41.5 
30.8 
20.0 
15.2 
12.9 



Table compiled from figures given in the Reports of the (Virginia) 
Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1916-17, p. 149, and 1917-18, p. 84. 



Statistical Tables 



333 



TABLE 55 

Showing the proportions of teachers (in percentages) having had various 
terms of teaching experience before this year (1918-19) in non-city 
schools. 



Experience 


County schools 
of all types 


One-room 
schools 


High 

schools 


in Years 


White 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


White 
only 





22.3 

16.4 

10.4 

8.3 

7.3 

6.3 

14.1 

6.0 

8.9 


20.1 

11.0 
7.9 
5.4 
5.4 
6.5 

18.6 
6.5 

18.6 


35.9 
15.3 
9.3 
6.5 
6.0 
5.6 
10.0 
4.4 
7.0 


22.9 

10.9 
8.3 
4.7 
6.3 
7.4 

15.6 
7.3 

16.6 


15.8 


1 


11.2 


2 

3 


8.3 
7.5 


4 

5 


4.1 
4.7 


6-10 


22.6 


11-15.... 


6.8 


Over 15 


18.5 






Total number. 


1,461 


354 


432 


192 


295 


Median 
experience, 
years 


1.4 


4.0 


.9 


3.5 


4.6 



Table compiled from selected returns. 



334 



The Public Schools of Virginia 






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Statistical Tables 



335 



TABLE 57 

Showing the training of teachers in the entire State according to the figures 
given on page 97 of the 1917-18 Report of the (Virginia) Superintendent 
of Public Instruction. Figures for the number and per cent of teachers 
having had various kinds of education and professional training. 



EDUCATION AND TRAINING 



Number 



Per 
cent 



Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 



Graduates of State Normal Schools (white). 

Graduates of Univ. Va., V. M. I., V. P. I. 
(white) 

Graduates of Petersburg Normal and Hamp- 
ton (colored) 

Graduates of other Virginia colleges and 
normals 

Graduates of out-of-State colleges and 
normals 

Not graduates but attending college one 
year or more 

Normal training departments in high schools 

Four years of high school or less 

Total 



1,811 


13.0 


191 


1.4 


824 


5.9 


1,152 


8.3 


554 


3.9 


1,230 

918 

7,224 


8.9 

6.6 

52.0 


13,904 


100.0 



13.0 
14.4 
20.3 
28.6 
32.5 

41.4 

48.0 
100.0 



100.0 



336 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 58 

Showing for 1918-19 the relative numbers and percentages of white non- 
city high-school teachers in eighteen counties of Virginia having various 
amounts of education and training. 



EDUCATION AND 
TRAINING 



Number 



Men 



Women 



Total 



Per 
cent 



Cumu- 
lative 
per 
cent 



Less than High school I . 

High School I 

High School II 

High School III 

High School IV 

College 1 

College 2 

College 3 

College 4 

Normal School 1 

Normal School 2 

Normal School 3 



Total. 



Median years of educati 



2 
1 
1 

21 
6 

31 
1 
5 



68 



3 

32' 

8 
33 

8 
41 

6 
64 

1 



3 

2 
33 

9 
54 
14 
72 

7 
69 

1 



197 



265 



on abov e the ele 



mentary 



.4 

.0 

1.1 

.7 

12.5 

3.4 

20.4 

5.3 

27.2 

2.6 

26.0 

.4 



100.0 



school, 



.4 

.4 

1.5 

2.2 

14.7 

18.1 

38.5 

43.8 

71.0 

73.6 

99.6 

100.0 



100.0 



5.63 



Statistical Tables 



337 



TABLE 59 

Showing the average annual salaries of teachers in Virginia from 1918 

to 1918 





White 


Colored 


White and colored 


School 
Year 


.2 
'■5 
d 
3 
o 
O 


DO 
OB 

'•+3 

s 


CO 

s3 

+3 

02 


00 

.2 

'■+3 

a 
p 
o 
O 


CQ 

'■5 

5 


6 

+3 
+3 

02 


DO 

'•+3 

a 

o 
O 


DO 

3 


0) 
S3 


1913-14. . . 
1914-15... 
1915-16... 
1916-17. . . 
1917-18. . . 


$293 
308 
315 
333 
351 


$662 
665 
672 
650 
658 


$352 
368 
379 
397 
423 


$148 
158 
161 
169 
175 


$395 
399 
392 
396 
391 


$189 
200 
206 
216 
241 


$262 
276 
283 
299 
315 


$603 
600 
608 
594 
673 


$317 
332 
342 
358 
385 



Table compiled from data given in the Reports of the (Virginia) 
Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



TABLE 60 

Comparing teachers' salaries in Virginia with those in other 
parts of the country, 1915-16 





Average 

monthly 

salary 


Average 

number 

months in 

school term 


Average 
annual 
salary 


Virginia 


$48.50 
70.21 
80.15 
68.14 
50.65 
61.18 
95.05 


7.05 
8.02 
9.09 
8.36 
6.76 
6.76 
8.39 


$341.90 


United States 


563.08 


North Atlantic States. . . . 
North Central States 
South Atlantic States .... 
South Central States 
Western States 


728.56 
569.65 
342.39 
413.58 
797.47 






Rank of Virginia 


43 


37 


42 



Table compiled from figures given in the Report of the Commissioner 
of Education, 1917, Vol. II, p. 77. 



338 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 61 

Showing for 1917-18 the number of counties having various records for the 
average annual salaries of teachers 



SALARY 


White 


Colored 


Under $100 




1 


$100-$125 




6 


126- 150 




19 


151- 175 




24 


176- 200 




19 


201- 225 


3 
6 
9 
8 
15 
10 
15 
9 
4 
4 
6 
3 
5 
1 
1 
1 


13 


226- 250 


8 


251- 275 


1 


276- 300 


1 


301- 325 


3 


326- 350 




351- 375 




376- 400 


1 


401- 425 


1 


426- 450 




451- 475 




476- 500 




501- 525 




526- 550 




551- 575 




576- 600 








Average 


$348.94 


$182.94 






Median 


$348.76 


$177.48 







Table compiled from the Report of the (Virginia) Superintendent of 
Public Instruction, 1917-18, pp. 83-84. 
Average length of term in white schools, 7 . 2 months. 
Average monthly salary in white schools, $48.46. 
Average length of term in colored schools, 6.1 months. 
Average monthly salary in colored schools, $29.99. 



Statistical Tables 



339 



TABLE 62 

Showing for 1918-19 the relative number of elementary-school teachers 
contracted with for the annual salaries indicated 





Counties 


Cities 


ANNUAL SALARY 


White 


Colored 


White 


Colored 


Under $150... 


1 

14 

186 

188 

178 

313 

229 

198 

160 

67 

29 

16 

2 

4 

4 




3 

4 

8 

4 

10 

8 

19 

95 

97 

110 

146 

96 

92 

80 

164 

68 

174 

28 

75 

13 

18 

12 

11 

2 




$ 150-$ 199 


40 

161 

99 

52 

20 

19 

10 

4 

1 

1 


7 


200- 249 


1 


250- 299 


11 


300- 349 


60 


350- 399 


28 


400- 449 


87 


450- 499. . . . 


109 


500- 549 


95 


550- 599. . . . 


28 


600- 649. . . . 


38 


650- 699. . . 


12 


700- 749. . . 




7 


750- 799. 


1 
1 




800- 849. . . . 


3 


850- 899. . . 


1 


900- 949. 


3 






950- 999. . 






1,000- 1,049. 


1 






1,050- 1,099... 






1,100- 1,149... 






1 


1,150- 1,199. 








1,200- 1,249... 








1,250- 1,299.. . 








1,300- 1,349. 








1,350- 1,399... 






4 




1,400- 1,449. 








1,450- 1,499.. . 






1 
31 




1,500- 2,000. 
















Total 


1,593 


409 


1,373 


488 







Table compiled from figures on State Department Form S. No. 4 for 
schools in all parts of the State. Among the county teachers considered 
were 74 men and 1,519 women. 



340 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 63 

Showing for 1918-19 the relative number of high-school teachers (white 
only) contracted with for the annual salaries indicated 





Counties 


Cities 


ANNUAL SALARY 


Men 


Women 


Men 


Women 


$ 250-$ 299 






1 




300- 349 






1 


350- 399 




5 

11 
18 
31 
35 
41 
29 
18 
6 
10 




9 


400- 449 






2 


450- 499. . . 


1 
3 


1 


1 


500- 549 


7 


550- 599 




19 


600- 649 


5 
2 
1 
2 
5 
6 
3 
4 
3 
3 
3 
2 
5 
4 


1 


48 


650- 699 


29 


700- 749 




17 


750- 799 




19 


800- 849. . . . 


1 


35 


850- 899 


18 


900- 949 


1 


3 
2 
3 
6 


48 


950- 999. . . . 


46 


1,000- 1,049 




18 


1,050- 1,099... 


1 


33 


1,100- 1,149 


20 


1,150- 1,199 




3 

3 

8 

2 

10 

4 

5 

14 

11 


14 


1,200- 1,249... 




7 


1,250- 1,299.... 




16 


1,300- 1,349... 




1 


1,350- 1,399... 


6 

1 

4 

13 






1,400- 1,449... 




1 


1,450- 1,499... 






1,500- 2,000.... 




1 


Over 2,000 




2 










Total 


76 


206 


78 


410 







Table compiled from figures on the State Department Form S. No. 4, 
for schools in all parts of the State. 



Statistical Tables 



341 



TABLE 64 

Showing the enrolments for the regular session of 1917-1S in the 
State Normal Schools. 





6 

a 

u 

03 


si 

■~ 

.Q 

CO 
M 

T3 
FH 


F-l 

3 
.fi 

a 

o 

CO 
's-i 

s- 
03 

M 


Radford. 


"o3 
O 

H 


Normal Students 


416 
207 


126 
124 


241 
35 


252 
104 


1,035 


High-School Pupils 


470 


Total 


623 


250 


276 


356 


1,505 







TABLE 65 
Graduates of the State Normal Schools for Women 1914-18. 



NORMAL SCHOOL 


Teaching 
1918-19 


Not 

Teaching 

1918-19 


Total 


Farmville 

Fredericksburg 


552 

168 
209 
122 


163 
36 

117 
15 


715 
204 


Harrisonburg 

Radford 


326 
137 






Total 


1,051 


331 


1,382 







342 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 66 

Showing the relative amount of time devoted to work in the high school 
and normal professional departments of the four State Normal Schools 
for Women, 1918-19* 





Number of minutes devoted 
per week to instruction in 


Per cent of 
time devoted 


NORMAL 
SCHOOL 


Normal 
depart- 
ment. 


High 
school 
depart- 
ment 


Both 
depart- 
ments 


to work in the 
normal profes- 
sional de- 
partment 


Farmville 


15,270 
6,215 
9,423 

8,195 


6,630 

8,188 

400 

5,018 


21,900 

14,398 

9,823 

13,213 


69.7 


Fredericksburg 

Harrisonburg 

Radford 


43.2 
95.9 
62.0 






Total 


39,103 


20,231 


59,334 


65.9 







Instruction in classroom only considered here. 



Statistical Tables 



343 



TABLE 67 

Showing the amount of observation and practice teaching by graduates of 
the class of 1918 in the four State Normal Schools for Women. Figures 
in terms of the number of graduates having observed and having taught 
various numbers of recitations, (c) 





Observation 


Practice teaching 


NUMBER 
RECITATIONS 


F 
EACH 

o 

'> 

a 

u 

o3 


tab 

tH 

JO 

CO 

"(H 

<u 

-a 

03 

tn 


M 

tn 
P 
£1 

a n 
O 

.8 

tn «• 
tn 1 

a 
W P 


i 

3 5 

3 

4 H 


a 

u 
a 
P=i 


bb 

3 

CD 
,3 
O 

"C 
a> 

T3 
<D 

(-, 


a 


m 

tH 

OS 


O 


"3 

H 


1-25 


'.'.'.'.'.'. io' 

19 

5 

8 

19 

7 

26 

5 

...... 2 

3 


35 

11 


2 

15 4 
5 .. 
2 .. 

Y " 

2 .. 

1 .. 

1 .. 

12 .. 

"3' '.'. 

25 .. 


2 
5 105 
. . 24 
.. 7 
.. 8 
. . 32 

9 
. . 27 
.. 6 
. . 12 

2 
.. 6 
.. 25 












26-50 












51-75 






21 
13 
10 

20 
5 
1 


45' 


91 


76-100 

101-125 

126-150 

151-175 

176-200 

201-225 


8 
16 
40 
17 
20 
2 
1 


11 


21 

71 
60 
22 
32 

?, 


226-250 








1 


251-275 










276-300 




35 






35 


Over 300 




















Total 


104a 


46 


70b 4 


5 265 


104a 


466 


70 


45 


?m 









a Records not reported for 60 graduates. 

b Five graduates trained in the institutional household arts course 
not included here. 
c As reported by the presidents or registrars of the schools. 



344 



The Public Schools of Virginia 









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Statistical Tables 



345 



TABLE 69 

Showing the education and training of instructors in the four 
State Normal Schools for Women, 1918-19 



NORMAL SCHOOL 



Number of 




College 




instructors 




degrees 




a 












a 

o 

2 


a 

o 


o 
H 




^ 
§ 




02 
PQ 



o 
o 
^a qq 

CG -*> 
_ «3 



03 

m a 
a 5 

<S UoQ 



Farmville 

Fredericksburg 
Harrisonburg. . 
Radford 

Total 



5 


32 


37 


2 


8 


6 


8 


7 


15 


22 




6 


4 


2 


4 


15 


19 


2 


3 


3 


7 


6 


15 


21 




3 


3 


3 


22 


77 


99 


4 


20 


16 


20 



13 

10 

4 

12 



39 



27 

8 

11 

12 



58 



a This column includes only those not having other degrees. 
Practically all instructors have had some professional training either 
in normal schools or at special institutions providing for professional 
training. 



346 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 70 

Showing the teaching experience of instructors in the four State 



Normal Schools for 


Women, 


1918-19 








CO 

o 
« 

CO 

CD 
■+? 
03 
> 

Ph 


u 

u 

u 
o 

>> CO 

2 s 


o 
o 

CO 

s 


Normal school 




Number of Years' 

Experience in 

Teaching 


o3 

"3 

*3o 

> 
a 

l-H 


O o3 

CT 




Farmville 
Normal School 

1-5 


12 
5 
1 
2 


12 
2 
5 
1 


7 
4 


19 
4 
2 
1 
3 


7 
2 


3 


6-10 


2 


11-15 




16-20 




1 


Over 20. . . 
















Total 


20 

9 

1 


20 

7 
3 
1 


11 

5 
3 

2 


29 

12 
4 


9 

3 
1 


6 


Fredericksburg 
Normal School 

1- 5 


1 


6-10 


3 


11-15. 














Total 


10 

4 

2 

1 


11 

8 
1 


10 

2 
2 
1 


16 

7 
6 
1 
1 


4 

1 


4 


Harrisonburg 
Normal School 

1- 5 


7 


6-11 


2 


11-15. 




16-20 




1 












Total 


7 

2 
1 


9 

6 
1 

2 


5 

5 
1 
1 


15 

10 
7 
1 


1 
1 


10 


Radford 
Normal School 

1-5 


1 


6-10 


2 


11-16 




16-20 








Over 20 


1 










1 














Total 


4 


9 


7 


18 


1 


3 






Grand Total.. 


41 


49 


33 


78 


15 


23 



Statistical Tables 



347 



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348 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 72 

Showing the relative numbers and percentages of Virginia teachers holding 
certificates of various kinds in 1918-19 







Number 




Per cent 


Certificates 


White 


Colored 


Total 


White 


Colored 


Total 


Collegiate 

Professional... 

Collegiate 

Normal 

Professional... 
Elementary 

Professional... 
Special 


18 
106 

197 

333 
168 
253 
171 
168 


1 

4 

24 

254 
25 
178 
232 
207 


19 
110 

221 

587 
193 
431 
403 
375 


1.3 

7.5 

13.9 

23.5 
11.9 
17.9 
12.1 
11.9 


.1 
.4 

2.6 

27.5 
2.7 
19.2 
25.1 
22.4 


.8 
4.7 

9.5 

25.1 
8.5 


First Grade 
Second Grade. . . 
Local Permit 


18.4 
17.2 
16.0 


Totals 


1,414 


925 


2,339 


100.0 


100.0 


100 



Table compiled from a random selection of more than ten per cent 
of all white teachers and more than twenty per cent of all colored 
teachers. The fact that the certificate system is changing and that 
the revaluation of certificates is not complete prevents us from using 
complete figures. For proportions, however, the figures given are just 
as accurate a measure of teachers' qualifications as the complete 
statistics would give. 



Statistical Tables 



349 



TABLE 73 

Showing the number of counties with various -percentages of their teachers 
holding "professional" certificates in 1917-18 



Per Cent of Teachers Holding 
Professional Certificates 


Number of 
counties 





1 


1-10 


6 


11-20 


12 


21-30 


12 


31-40 


18 


41-50... 


11 


51-60 


22 


61-70 


6 


71-80 


7 


81-91 


5 









Table compiled from figures given on page 93 of the Report of the 
(Virginia) Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1917-18. 



TABLE 74 

Showing the distribution of certificates for all teachers in Virginia in 
1917-18, according to the Report of the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction. 



KIND OF CERTIFICATE 



White, 
per 
cent 



Colored, 
per 
cent 



Total, 
per 
cent 



Higher than first grade 

First grade 

Second grade 

Third grade and local permits 



49.2 

31.2 

13.4 

6.2 



33.4 
26.4 
18.2 
22.0 



45.8 

30.1 

14.4 

9.7 



Table compiled from figures given on page 92 of the Report of the 
(Virginia) Superintendent of Public Instruction. 



350 



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The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 77 

Showing the ratio of high school enrolments in Virginia to high school 
enrolments in the United States, 1916 





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Per cent, of school enrolment 
attending high school 

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public schools 



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1.69 


5.53 


7.49 


82.93 


87.32 



1.01 

4.13 

80.33 



32 
34 
35 



Table compiled from data given on page 23 of the Report of the 
(U. S.) Commissioner of Education, 1917. 



TABLE 78 

Showing the number of schools of various grades offering high school 

work in 1917-18 



SCHOOLS 
LOCATED IN 


First-grade 
(four-year) 
schools. 


Second-grade 
(three-year) 
schools. 


Third-grade 

(two-year) 
schools. 


All others giving 
high school 
work. 


13 
o 
H 


Counties 

Cities 


204 
23 


176 

8 


160 
4 


27 
3 


627 
38 






Totals 


227 


184 


164 


30 


665 



Table compiled from data given in the Report of the (Virginia) 
Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1917-18, pp. 81-82. 



Statistical Tables 



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356 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 82 

Showing the sex balance on high school classes, 1917-18 



SEX 



Per cent 



Grade 
I 



Grade 
II 



Grade 
III 



Grade 
IV 



All 



Counties — Boys 
Girls 

Cities — Boys 

Girls.... 

Total— Boys. . 
Girls.. 



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59.6 


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63.0 



39.2 
60.8 



TABLE 83 

Showing the education and training of high school teachers, 1916-17 





Number 


Per cent 


At least two years of college work 


933 
200 
381 


61.6 


Normal school work 


13.2 


All others 


25.2 






Total 


1,514 


100.0 







Table compiled from data given in Fifth Annual Report of the 
Public High Schools of Virginia for the School Year 1916-17, pp. 21-22. 



Statistical Tables 



357 



TABLE 84 

Showing the sources of Virginia's supply of high school teachers who have 
had at least two years of college education. Figures for 1916-17 





Number 


Per cent 


INSTITUTIONS 


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Virginia private colleges 

Out-of-State colleges 


113 

306 
129 
160 


34 
99 
13 

79 


147 
405 
142 
239 


16.0 
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18.2 
22.6 


15.1 

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35.1 


15.8 
43.4 
15.2 
25.6 






Total 


708 


225 


933 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 







Table compiled from data given in Fifth Annual Report of the 
Public High Schools of Virginia for the School Year 1916-17, pp. 17-20. 



TABLE 85 

Showing the amounts of education and training received by 265 white 
high school teachers in Virginia. Figures for 1918-19 



HIGHEST GRADE OF 
EDUCATION RECEIVED 


Number 


Per cent 


Cumulative 
per cent 


Less than high school I 


1 


.4 


.4 


First grade of high school 


.4 


Third grade of high school 

Fourth grade of high school.. 
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3 
2 
33 
7 
69 
1 
9 

54 
14 
72 


1.1 

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26.0 

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27.2 


1.5 

2.2 

14.7 

17.3 


Normal school 2 


43.3 


Normal school 3 


43.7 


College 1 

College 2 

College 3 

College 4 


47.1 

67.5 

72.8 

100.0 


Total 


265 


100.0 


100.0 



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Statistical Tables 361 

TABLE 88 

Showing for sixteen cities and two towns of Virginia the industries 
engaging fifty or more skilled and semi-skilled workers each in 1919 K 

Alexandria — Carpenters, 108 — 83; painters, 47 — 37; railroad shops, 
129 — 45 ; ship yards, 540 — 1422 ; total skilled and semi-skilled workers, 
1,063—1,686. 

Bristol — Carpenters, 31 — 24; clothing industries, 40 — 90; lumber and 
furniture, 230 — 92; textile industries, — 120; leather trades, 170 — 
30; paper industries, 120 — 50. 

Charlottesville — Textile industries, 115 — 110; carpenters, 46 — 36. 

Clifton Forge— Railroad shops, 384 — 220. 

Danville — Carpenters, 89 — 68; painters. 39 — 29; clothing industries, 
40 — 80; lumber and furniture, 53 — 22; textile industries, 2,585 — 1,335; 
tobacco industries, 182 — 23. 

Fredericksburg — Clothing industries, 99 — 116; textile industries, 22 — 40; 
leather trades, 36 — 14. 

Hampton — Carpenters, 39 — 30; printing and engraving, 43 — 20; ship 
yards, 280—330. 

Harrisonburg — Clothing industries, 20 — 30; leather industries, 16 — 100. 

Lynchburg — Carpenters, 145 — 112; painters, 70 — 52; builders and con- 
tractors, 42 — 33; bricklayers and stonemasons, 29 — 23; metal in- 
dustries, 257 — 140 ; clothing industries, 42 — 748 ; lumber and furniture 
225—89; textile industries, 50—440; leather industries, 1,138—327; 
printing and engraving, 92 — 23; (peanut and) candy products, 62 — 
24 ; paper products, 25 — 33. 

Newport News — Carpenters, 89 — 68; painters, 30 — 29; lumber and fur- 
niture, 80— 110; railroad shops, 250—200; ship yards, 3,700—3,250; 
automobile repairs, 32 — 33. 

Norfolk — Carpenters, 559 — 428; painters, 258 — 198; plasterers, 73 — 56; 
builders and contractors, 161 — 123 ; bricklayers and stonemasons, 
100 — 76; sheet metal workers, 50 — 28; metal trades, 284— 15; lumber 
and furniture, 112 — 138; textile industries, 16 — 393; printing and 
engraving, 170 — 10; ship yards, 728 — 275; automobile repairs, 210— 
47 ; plumbing, 87—67 ; electric trades, 88—67. 

Petersburg — Carpenters, 127 — 98; painters, 61 — 45; builders and con- 
tractors, 37 — 29; metal industries, 31 — 20; lumber and furniture, 
457 — 464; tobacco industries, — 275; automobile repairs, 36 — 18. 

Portsmouth — Carpenters, 327 — 250; painters, 131 — 100; builders and 
contractors, 53 — 40 ; metal industries, 91 — 83 ; lumber and furniture, 
63 — 54; textile industries, 140 — 1,252; railroad shops, 475 — 252; ship 
yards, 3,629—875; plumbing, 33—25; electrical trades, 33—25. 

Pulaski — Metal industries, 39 — 70; railroad shops, 100 — 25; paint 
products, 60—80. 

Roanoke — Carpenters, 235 — 180 ; painters, 92 — 71 ; builders and con- 
tractors, 61 — 46; bricklayers and stonemasons, 47 — 33; metal in- 
dustries, 179 — 240; clothing industries, 11 — 121; textile industries, 
38 — 318; printing and engraving, 132 — 19; railroad shops, 2,677 — 441; 
automobile repairs, 57 — 30. 

Salem — Metal industries, 80 — 24; clothing industries, 24 — 68; leather 
industries, 6 — 56; glass industries, 60 — 40. 

Staunton — Carpenters, 39 — 30 ; clothing industries, 68 — 126 ; lumber and 
furniture, 52 — 50. 

Suffolk — Carpenters, 54 — 41 ; metal industries, 36 — 40 ; lumber and fur- 
niture, 66 — 12; textile industries, 13 — 285. 

1 Figures must be considered approximate only. 



362 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



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364 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 91 

Showing the percentages of non-city school buildings receiving 

various ratings for different characteristics. Number of 

non-city white schools considered 407, number of 

non-city colored schools considered 167 



RATINGS GIVEN 



White 
Schools (407) 



Colored 
Schools (167) 



D E 



D E 



Adequacy of window 

space 

Arrangement of windows 
Arrangement of seats. . . . 

Window shades 

Heating 

Ventilation 

Water supply 

Toilet facilities 

Condition of toilets 



8.6 
28.0 
24.6 
15.0 
20.6 
15.7 
25.1 
28.2 
21.6 



19.2 
25.1 
32.4 
17.5 
38.1 
29.2 
35.4 
30.2 



6.1 
23.6 
18.9 
21.1 
27.8 
31.2 
19.4 
22.1 



28.0129.0 



16.8 
1.2 
2.0 
1.2 
9.6 
1.8 
5.4 
6.0 
1.8 



3.6 

12.6 

12.2 

7.8 

4.2 

1.8 

19.8 

14.4 

12.6 



25.8 
9.0 
30.4 
12.0 
23.9 
15.0 
39.5 
27.5 
29.9 



4.8 
40.7 
25.0 
20.4 
55.7 
54.5 
29.9 
26.9 
23.9 



49.0 
36.5 
30.4 
58.6 

6.6 
26.9 

5.4 
25.2 
31.8 



Space is not here available to present details concerning the 
basis of rating employed above. Definite and fixed standards 
were employed in each case, with proper regard for accepted 
standards where they exist, e.g., for adequacy of window space, 
arrangement of windows, etc. Ten different investigators were 
employed after a period of training in using the standards and, 
after a measure of uniformity had been assured through the rating 
of several buildings by the staff independently before the regular 
field work was begun. The amount of variability in rating was 
reduced to a negligible quantity before the regular field work was 
begun. 

In general the ratings employed may be interpreted loosely as 
follows : 

A — Meeting standard requirements in every essential par- 
ticular ; 

B — Falling below standards somewhat but still distinctly 
above merely acceptable conditions; 

C — Below standard but still acceptable; 

D — Seriously defective conditions approaching the intolerable 

E — Totally unacceptable and intolerable. 



Statistical Tables 



365 



TABLE 92 

Showing the percentages of one-room school buildings receiving 
various ratings for different characteristics. Number of white 
school buildings, 162, number oj colored school buildings, 112. 



RATINGS GIVEN 



White 
schools (162) 



D 



E 



Colored 
schools (112) 



D 



E 



Adequacy of window 

space 

Arrangement of windows 
Arrangement of seats.. 

Window shades 

Heating 

Ventilation 

Water supply 

Toilet facilities 

Condition of toilets 

See note to Table 91. 



24.1 


5.0 


26.5 


8.0 


36.4 


9.8 


11.7 


10.5 


13.0 


43.2 


21.6 


.9 


12.3 


14.2 


34.0 


25.3 


14.2 


2.0 


3.1 


9.9 


7.4 


16.6 


63.0 


.0 


5.0 


14.2 


35.2 


45.0 


.6 


8.9 


.6 


8.6 


21.6 


45.7 


23.5 


.9 


2.5 


19.1 


48.8 


20.4 


9.2 


4.5 


6.2 


27.2 


30.3 


19.1 


17.2 


7.2 


1.8 


21.0 


31.5 


23.5 


22.2 


.9 



3.6 

4.5 

8.0 

4.5 

3.6 

.0 

16.1 

11.5 

13.4 



25.9 
4.5 
31.0 
10.8 
21.4 
9.8 
34.8 
22.3 
27.7 



13.4 
42.8 
23.0 
15.2 
62.5 
61.6 
38.4 
29.5 
25.0 



47.3 
47.3 
36.0 
69.5 

3.6 
27.7 

6.2 
29.5 
33.0 



366 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 93 

Showing the -percentages of defects found in the school children of 
seven counties of Virginia (Orange, Loudoun, Albemarle, Washing- 
ton, York, Warwick, Alexandria) and in the cities of Charlottesville 
and Bristol, 1915. Percentages defective of those examined. 



Defects and Diseases 



Counties 




Cities 


-d 


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o 




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M 
O 


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O 



Defects of the eyes 

Defects of the ears 

Defects of the teeth 

Defects of the glands 

Defects of the thyroid 

Defects of the tonsils 

Adenoids 

Malnutrition 

Having had whooping cough. 

Having had measles 

Having had chicken-pox 

Having had mumps 



23.7 


23.0 


23.0 


14.0 


8.0 


4.6 


2.3 


3.4 


1.5 


.8 


66.5 


56.5 


62.5 


63.0 


62.5 


33.5 


47.0 


40.0 


67.5 


73.0 


10.0 


15.0 


12.5 


8.7 


10.5 


46.3 


53.0 


50.0 


70.0 


60.0 


33.5 


42.0 


37.5 


44.5 


41.5 


15.0 


14.5 


15.0 


5.5 


7.0 


65.0 


49.5 


58.0 


74.5 


60.5 


48.0 


33.0 


41.0 


74.5 


45.0 


36.0 


24.0 


30.0 


58.5 


39.0 


37.0 


24.0 


31.0 


71.5 


34.0 



11.0 

1.1 

62.7 
70.0 

9.5 
65.0 
43.0 

6.3 
67.5 
59.7 
48.5 
52.5 



Total number of children examined, white, 14,803; colored, 
4,728; total, 19,531. 

Standard of defect in eyes — inability to read the twenty-foot line 
on the Snellen's Eye Testing Card at a distance of twenty feet. 

Standard of defect in ears — apparent inability to hear the whis- 
pered voice, testing the ears separately, at a distance of twenty 
feet. 

Standard of defect in teeth — cavities only considered. 



Statistical Tables 



367 



TABLE 94 

Showing for fifty counties of Virginia the percentages of children of school 
age examined having hookworm infection. More than 1,000 examined 
in each of the counties considered here. 



Percentage 
infected 



Number of 

counties in 

group 



COUNTIES 



1-10 

11-20 
21-30 
31-40 

41-50 

51-60 
61-70 



Northampton (1.2%), Tazewell (1.4%), 
Warwick (2.7%), Powhatan (3.4%), Fred- 
erick (3.5%), Rappahannock (4.7%), 
Greene (6.4%), Page (6.8%), Madison 
(7.0%), Fluvanna (7.6%), Loudoun 
(7.9%), Washington (9.5%). 

Spotsylvania (10.0%), Cumberland (11.9%), 
Rockingham (11.9%), Amherst (12.5%), 
Amelia (13.9%), Northumberland (14.1%) 
Surry (18.1%), Augusta (18.2%), Rock- 
bridge (19.0%), Campbell (19.7%). 

Orange (20.4%), Scott (21.5%), Bedford 
(22.7%), Charlotte (23.5%), Albemarle 
(25.1%), Prince Edward (25.5%), Middle- 
sex (25.7%), Nelson (26.4%), Sussex 
(28.4%), Buckingham (28.7%). 

Appomattox (30.1%), Caroline (34.9%), 
Mecklenburg (35.2%), Richmond (35.2%), 
Lunenburg (35.9%), Louisa (36.9%), Hali- 
fax (37.3%), Pittsylvania (37.3%), Lee 
(38.5%). 

Franklin (42.8%), Southampton (43.3%), 
Hanover (43.8%), Dickenson (46.5%), 
Wise (48.6%), Brunswick (48.7%), Henry 
(49.3%). 

Essex (55.4%), Westmoreland (55.6%). 

Greensville (66.5%), Patrick (66.6%). 



Table compiled from Report of the State Board of Health, 1914. 



368 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 95 

Showing the ratio between the amounts received from State Funds (at 
the rate of $8,086 -per negro child of ages seven to eighteen) and the 
total amount paid for colored teachers 1 salaries in 1917-18 for counties 
and cities of Virginia having over twenty-five per cent colored 
population 6 . 



Per cent that total col- 
ored teachers' salaries 
is of the amount 
received from State 
Funds. 1 


Thirty-two counties in 
each of which the 
Negro population is 
from 50% to 75% of 
the total population. 2 


Thirty-one counties in 
each of which the 
Negro population is 
from 25% to 50% of 
the total population. 8 


Ten cities in each of 
which the Negro popu- 
lation is from 25% to 
50% of the total popu- 
lation. * 


25- 30 




1 




31- 35 






36-40 


4 
1 

2 
4 
3 
6 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 






41- 45 


1 
2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
4 
3 




46- 50 




51- 55 




56- 60 




61- 65 




66- 70 




71- 75.... 


1 


76- 80 




81- 85 




86- 90 






91- 95 






96-100 


2 
6 

1 




101-125 




126-150 




2 


151-175 




3 


176-200 




1 




Over 200 




4 


For all 


64.8% 
61.6% 


77.2% 
72.0% 


234.1% 
167.1% 


Medians 







i When the ratio is 100% it means that the total amount expended for the salaries of 
colored teachers is equal to the amount which the county or city receives from State funds 
for each colored child of ages seven to nineteen. When under 100% it means that the county 
or city spends for all of colored teachers' salaries less than the amount received from the 
State. When over 100% it means that the county or city spends from local funds the 
amount over 100%. 

' This group of counties contains 42% of the entire colored school population of the 
State. 

"» This group of counties contains 29% of the entire colored school population of the 
State. 

",* .This group of cities (plus the city of Hampton which provides no colored schools) 
contains 15% of the entire colored school population of the State. 

* These counties and cities contain all but 14% of the entire colored school population 
of the State. 



Statistical Tables 



369 



TABLE 96 

Showing previous teaching experience of the eighty-six Division Super- 
intendents of schools in Virginia. 



NUMBER DIVISION SUPERINTENDENTS 


Number years' 
teaching experience 


12 





1.. 


1 


8 


2 


2 


3 


6 


4 


4 


5 


20 


6-10 


17 


11-15 


16 


16-34 







370 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



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Statistical Tables 



371 



TABLE 98 

Comparing conditions in one-room or two-room non-city schools, larger 
schools of the non-city type, and city schools in certain respects. 
Figures for 1916-17 



Rural 

one and 

two 

room 
schools 



Rural 
schools 
of more 

than 
two 

rooms 



All 

city 

schools 



Number of schools in each group 

Per cent of schools in each group 

Per cent of non-city schools in each group. . 
Number of white pupils enrolled in each 

group 

Number of colored pupils enrolled in each 

group 

Number of pupils of both races enrolled 

Per cent of white pupils enrolled in each 

group 

Per cent of colored pupils enrolled in each 

group 

Per cent of pupils of both races enrolled. . . . 
Number of white teachers employed in each 

group 

Number of colored teachers employed in 

each group 

Number of teachers of both races employed 
Per cent of white teachers employed in each 

group 

Per cent of colored teachers employed in 

each group 

Per cent of teachers of both races employed 
Average number of days in the school term 

— white 

Average number of days in the school term 

— colored 

Average number of days in the school term 

—both 

Pupils per teacher in white schools 

Pupils per teacher in colored schools 

Pupils per teacher in schools of both races.. . 
Average annual salary of teachers — white. . . 
Average annual salary of teachers — colored 
Average annual salary of teachers — both 

races 

Expenditure per pupil for teaching — white.. . 
Expenditure per pupil for teaching — colored. 
Expenditure per pupil for teaching — both 



5,592 
82.8 
85.6 


943 
13.9 
14.4 


157,192 


129,773 


95,052 
252,244 


15,019 
144,792 


44.4 


36.6 


69.1 
51.3 


10.9 
29.4 


4,664 


4,018 


2,035 
6,699 


282 
4,300 


43.2 


37.2 


69.9 
48.9 


9.7 
31.4 


125 


165 


116 


154 


122 

34 

47 

38 

$245.00 

167.00 


165 
32 
53 
34 

$432.00 
225.00 


222.00 
7.28 
3.38 


421.00 

13.41 

4.79 


5.89 


12.51 



215 
3.3 



67,266 

27,469 
94,735 

19.0 

20.0 
19.3 

2,116 

594 
2,710 

19.6 

20.4 
19.7 

177 

176 

177 
a 
a 
a 
a 
a 

a 
a 
a 



Table compiled from data given on page 141 of the Report of the 
(Virginia) Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1916-17, and from the 
extended summaries published in that volume. 

a The inclusion of high-school figures forbid comparison here. 



372 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 99 

Showing the numbers of counties and of non-city districts having various 
numbers of wagons used to transport school children in 1916-17. 



Number op wagons 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Eight 

or 
over 


Number of counties 

Number of districts 


43 
361 


14 
59 


6 
36 


5 
20 


4 
12 


10 
3 


5 
3 


1 
1 


12 
2 



TABLE 100 

Showing the character of high schools and high school enrolments in 1917-18 



Classification 


Number of schools 


Enrolments 


of Schools 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


First Grade 

Second Grade 

Third Grade 

Having one high- 
school grade .... 


204 
176 
160 

87 


23 

8 
4 

3 


227 
184 
164 

90 


10,938 
4,265 
2,376 

616 


9,704 
352 

478 

169 


20,642 
4,617 
2,854 

785 


Total 


627 


38 


665 


18,195 


10,703 


28,898 





Table compiled from figures presented on pages 79-82 of the Report of 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1917-18. 



Statistical Tables 



373 



TABLE 101 

Showing the distribution of high school pupils by grades in 1917-18 



Grades 


Number 


Per cent 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


Counties 


Cities 


Total 


I 

II 

Ill 

IV 


8,025 
5,199 
3,260 

1,884 


3,919 
3,031 
2,262 
1,513 


11,944 
8,230 
5,522 
3,397 


43.7 
28.3 
17.7 
10.3 


36.6 
28.3 
21.1 
14.1 


41.2 

27.7 
19.2 
11.9 


Total. . . 


18,368 


10,725 


29,093 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 



TABLE 102 

Showing for one hundred white schools of each type in 1918-19 the average 
size of classes in grades five, six, and seven in the elementary school and 
grades first and second of the high school in one-room, two-room, and 
three-room non-city schools in all parts of the State. 





Elementary 
school 


High 
school 


Grades 


5 


6 


7 


I 


II 


One-room schools, average size of classes 
Two-room schools, average size of classes 
Three-room schools, average size of classes 


3.4 
6.0 
9.5 


2.8 
5.1 
7.6 


2.2 
4.2 
6.7 










6.4 


3.4 



374 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 103 

Showing the relative size of non-city high schools for 
white children in 1918-19 





Number of high schools of various classes 


Number of 
Pupils Enrolled 


Four-year 
high schools 


Three-year Two-year 
high schools high schools 


Total high 
schools 


Under 15 


3 

4 

4 

13 

13 

17 

22 

21 

35 

24 

8 

4 


26 

18 

32 

21 

11 

7 

7 

4 

4 

1 


103 
45 
11 
6 
5 
1 
2 


132 


15- 19 


67 


20-24 


47 


25-29 


40 


30-34 


29 


35-39 


25 


40-44 


31 


45- 49 


25 


50- 74 


1 


40 


75- 99 


25 


100-124 




8 


Over 124 . 






4 










Total 


168 


131 


174 


473 







Table compiled from data given on State Department Form H. S. 
No. 7. 



Statistical Tables 



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380 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 109 

Showing facts concerning character of buildings and size of grounds, 1917 





dumber 




Per 


cents 




>> 






>> 




•+^ 






-U 














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Number of buildings in State. . 

Number of brick or stone 
buildings 

Number of frame buildings .... 

Number of log buildings 

Number with a half acre or less 
ground 

Number with more than one- 
half acre and less than one 
acre 

Number with from one to two 
acres grounds 

Number with two acres or more 
of grounds 

Number having three rooms or 
more 

Number having two rooms 

Number having one room 

Number of rooms in all 



215 

159 

56 



77 



74 

40 

24 

181 

21 

13 

1,791 



6,535 

302 

6,057 

176 

1,053 



1,055 

3,258 

1,169 

943 

1,150 

4,442 

11,427 



6,750 

461 

6,113 

176 

1,130 



1,129 

3,298 

1,193 

1,124 
1,171 

4,455 
13,218 



74 

26 



36 



34 
19 
11 

84 

10 

6 



5 

92 

3 

1(5 



16 
50 

IS 

15 
17 

68 



7 
91 

2 

17 



17 

48 

18 

17 
17 
66 



Statistical Tables 



381 



TABLE 110 

Showing the results of applying the Strayer score card for city school 
buildings to 104 school houses for white children in eighteen cities 



CITIES AND BUILDINGS 



Maximum 
possible 



125 



a 

i§ 

'3 



165 



CO 

<a S 

o o 

> CO 

u >■> 



o 



•is 

O O 



280 



290 



140 



o 
H 



1,000 



Alexandria. 



Buena Vista 

Charlottesville 

Clifton Forge . . 



Danville. 



Fredericksburg 
Harrisonburg. . 
Lynchburg 



Newport News 



Norfolk. 



.High School 

Lee 

Washington 

West End 

.High School 

.McGuffey 

Midway 

.High School 

Moody 

Moody Annex 

.High School 

Bellevue 

Rison Park 

Robert E. Lee 

Stonewall Jackson 

.High School 

Riverside 

.High School 

Waterman 

.High School 

Bigger 

Floyd 

Frank Rooney 

Guggenheimer-Millikan 
Kindergarten 

John W. Wyatt 

Miller Park 

Miller Park Annex 

Monroe 

Rivermont 

White Rock 

.High School 

Bankhead-Magruder. . . 

George Washington 

John W. Daniel 

Stonewall Jackson 

Thomas Jefferson 

.Maury High School 



120 
115 
110 
125 
125 
125 
120 
115 
90 
95 
105 
123 
115 
100 
115 
85 
115 
125 
125 
110 
115 
105 
115 

115 

118 

120 

110 

108 

105 

125 

115 

95 

95 

90 

120 

95 

115 



165 
162 
144 
165 

97 
165 
126 
124 
144 
165 
162 
111 
155 
155 
165 

53 
158 
159 
165 
170 
109 
131 
141 

101 
150 
160 
103 
143 
159 
145 
160 
125 
136 
158 
122 
141 
165 



260 
265 
175 
225 
147 
255 
173 
185 
157 
235 
245 
195 
248 
252 
248 
117 
240 
260 
255 
270 
136 
215 
197 

173 
241 
255 
155 
220 
204 
236 
254 
190 
173 
229 
190 
165 
259 



273 
262 
223 
260 
194 
278 
213 
240 
218 
276 
271 
200 
281 
263 
267 
145 
248 
283 
283 
280 
213 
234 
234 

220 
274 
281 
200 
275 
276 
268 
268 
238 
221 
246 
238 
266 
271 



45 

40 

30 
4 
55 
85 
20 
10 
30 
66 
33 
70 
62 
44 
50 
43 

100 
20 

130 
10 
20 
48 



76 
45 

10 
27 
20 
91 
15 
10 
42 
15 
18 
152 



863 
844 
652 
805 
563 
878 
717 
684 
619 
801 
849 
662 
869 
832 
839 
450 
804 
927 
848 
960 
583 
705 
735 

609 
859 
861 
568 
756 
771 
794 
888 
663 
635 
765 
685 
685 
962 



382 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 110— Continued. 

Showing the results of applying the Strayer score card for city school 
buildings to 104 school houses for white children in eighteen cities 



CITIES AND BUILDINGS 


6 


is 

'3 


CO 

O S 

> CQ 

** >> 
<D 00 
GO 


GO 

a 

o 
o 
u 

CO 

co 

c3 

o 


"3 co 

•ii 

8.° 


o 




Maximum 
possible 


125 


165 


280 


290 


140 


1,000 


John Marshall 
Samuel Boush 
Robert E. Lee 
James Monroe 
Thomas Jefferi 
Henrv Clav. . . 




105 
85 
105 
125 
105 
110 
115 
105 
110 
110 
120 
115 
115 
100 
115 
110 
115 
115 
125 
115 
115 
115 
115 
95 
95 
125 
120 
115 
90 
115 
125 
112 
115 
125 
113 
85 
100 
90 


158 
143 
129 
148 
141 
153 
116 
116 

71 
145 
163 
162 

75 
155 
163 
133 
165 
165 
165 
165 
165 
165 
160 
142 
108 
153 
157 
157 
122 
120 
116 
128 
127 
140 
139 
135 
148 
135 


221 

230 

216 

243 

212 

220 

204 

200 

143 

204 

255 

201 

182 

208 

220 

191 

275 

240 

245 

255 

250 

250 

250 

219 

145 

210 

225 

225 

129 

105 

116 

119 

208 

123 

162 

185 

170 ! 

158 


257 
259 
248 
230 
252 
262 
236 
268 
218 
239 
280 
245 
246 
259 
255 
245 
290 
279 
282 
283 
285 
285 
275 
277 
230 
275 
276 
276 
225 
229 
243 
252 
267 
231 
262 
235 
207 
175 


86 
46 
53 
61 
38 
78 
18 
12 
21 
32 
83 
45 
15 
35 
41 
48 

135 
55 
60 
70 
35 
75 

140 
30 
18 
13 
23 
23 
12 
5 
15 
10 
23 
20 
20 
35 
50 
25 


827 




763 




751 




807 




748 
823 


John Goode. 


689 
701 


William H. Ru 
Patrick Henry 
Walter Herron 
James Madisor 
James Madisor 
James Barron 
Robert Gatew< 
George Washir 
Petersburg High School. . 




563 
730 


Taylor. . . 


901 

768 


i (Old).... 
)od 


633 
757 
794 
727 
980 


Duncan M. Brown 

A. P. Hill 


854 

877 


Stonewall Jack 
Stonewall Jack 
Robert E. Lee 
Portsmouth. New High Sch 
Old High Scho 
Green Street. . 


son Annex 


888 
850 
890 


ol 


940 
763 
596 


Pinners Point. 
Ann Street.. . . 




776 




801 


Jefferson Stree 
High Street. . . 


t 


796 




578 


Glasgow Streel 
Elm Avenue... 




574 




615 


Cooke Street. . . 


621 


Port Norfolk No. 1 
Port Norfolk No. 2 
Prentis Park 


740 
639 
696 


Radford High School 


675 


West Ward 


675 


Eastward 


583 







Statistical Tables 



383 



TABLE 110— Continued. 

Showing the results of applying the Strayer score card for city school 
buildings to 104 school houses for white children in eighteen cities 









si 




03 

o a 


03 

a 

o 
o 


-* 03 




CITIES AND BUILDINGS 


6 


2 
'3 


GO 


u 
m 

03 

6 


a © 


S3 

O 

H 




Maximum 


125 


165 


280 


290 


140 


1,000 




1 possible 
















. . .John Marshall High 
















School 


125 


165 


268 


277 


120 


955 




Binford Junior High 
















School 


125 


165 


270 


2S3 


100 


943 




Barton Heights 


120 


121 


174 


215 


62 


692 




Highland Park 


125 


165 


255 


270 


80 


895 






115 


160 


197 


209 


62 


743 




Ginter Park 


125 


165 


265 


284 


76 


915 






105 


159 


192 


230 


57 


743 






105 


142 


238 


245 


41 


771 




Bellevue Junior High 
















School 


125 


165 


275 


280 


88 


933 




William F. Fox 


125 


165 


262 


283 


60 


895 






125 


165 


262 


285 


60 


897 


Roanoke 




110 


165 


265 


282 


125 


947 






125 


165 


245 


272 


40 


847 




Commerce Street 


120 


133 


168 


242 


20 


683 




Park 


105 


150 


208 


235 


26 


724 




Belmont 


105 


114 


173 


199 


24 


615 






115 


165 


245 


270 


40 


835 






105 


131 


190 


229 


28 


683 






100 


112 


143 


220 


17 


592 




West End 


115 
105 


131 
96 


205 
165 


235 
243 


10 


696 




Crystal Springs 


609 




High School 


85 


131 


188 


242 


76 


722 


Staunton 


...R. E. Lee High School.. 


110 


157 


235 


285 


40 


827 




Stonewall Jackson 


100 


145 


268 


280 


30 


823 




Thomas Jefferson 


125 


165 


245 


282 


45 


862 


Suffolk 


. . .Jefferson High School. . . 


125 


155 


190 


285 


60 


815 






115 


145 


196 


265 


20 


741 




Mason 


115 


142 


191 


265 


20 


733 


Winchester... 


. . . John Kerr 


105 


129 


194 


217 


20 


665 






95 


88 


139 


171 




493 



384 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 111 

Showing the results of applying the Strayer score card for city school 
buildings to thirty-eight colored school houses in fourteen cities 



CITIES AND BUILDINGS 



0) g 

> 03 



u 



o o 



Maximum 
possible 



125 



165 



280 



290 



140 



1,000 



Alexandria 

Charlottesville. 
Danville 



Fredericksburg. 
Harrisonburg. . 
Lynchburg 



Hollowell 

Jefferson 

Arlington 

Monticello 

New Westmoreland. 
Old Westmoreland.. 



Newport News. 
Norfolk 



Petersburg. . 
Portsmouth. 



Richmond. 



Roanoke . 

Staunton. 
Suffolk... 



Effinger 

Armstrong 

Jackson High School .... 

Payne 

Polk Street 

Yoder 

John Marshall 

B. T. Washington 

Abraham Lincoln 

J. J. Smallwood 

Jno. T. West 

Jos. Chas. Price 

Jno. H. Smythe 

Lott Carey 

S. C. Armstrong 

B. T. Washington High 

School 

Eastward 

Brighton 

Chestnut Street 

Mt. Hermon 

Armstrong High School . 

Baker 

Buchanan 

Moore 

Navy Hill 

Gainsboro 

Gregory 

Harrison 

B. T. Washington 

D. W. Davis 

Washington 



95 


107 


120 


201 


5 


110 


156 


225 


234 


30 


85 


97 


124 


182 


5 


85 


126 


63 


227 


28 


90 


121 


101 


229 


30 


90 


121 


97 


190 




60 


53 


105 


125 




125 


154 


230 


229 


32 


110 


150 


180 


270 




92 


109 


168 


209 




115 


118 


130 


197 


3 


100 


87 


128 


177 




115 


165 


192 


268 


43 


95 


138 


208 


249 


50 


85 


118 


97 


235 


5 


120 


158 


208 


245 


53 


95 


46 


119 


192 




105 


142 


187 


225 


42 


100 


91 


140 


202 


9 


115 


103 


143 


183 


5 


123 


141 


152 


213 


28 


90 


67 


125 


188 


36 


105 


90 


160 


131 


91 


90 


72 


121 


181 




108 


117 


100 


223 


5 


85 


122 


125 


190 


7 


92 


117 


81 


210 


15 


105 


101 


166 


163 


23 


115 


113 


248 


222 


25 


120 


165 


245 


277 


53 


95 


146 


263 


222 


30 


115 


128 


157 


211 


36 


90 


114 


160 


228 


20 


105 


115 


152 


215 


30 


110 


160 


250 


268 


40 


110 


160 


172 


266 


20 


110 


160 


172 


266 


20 


105 


145 


155 


250 


23 



528 
755 
493 
539 
571 
498 
343 
770 
710 
578 
563 
492 
783 
740 
540 
784 
452 
701 
542 
549 
657 
506 

577 
464 
553 
529 
575 
558 
723 
860 
756 
647 
612 
617 
828 
728 
728 
678 



Statistical Tables 



385 



TABLE 112 

Showing the number of city school buildings receiving various scores 
(Strayer Scale), 1919 





White 


Colored 


SCORE 


Number 


Per cent 


Number 


Per cent 


900-1,000 


11 
30 
26 
24 
9 
2 


11.0 
29.0 
25.5 
23.5 
9.0 
2.0 






801- 900 


2 
11 

5 
14 

5 

1 


5.3 


701- 800 


28 9 


601- 700 


13 2 


501- 600 


36 8 


401- 500 


13 2 


301- 400 


2.6 










Totals 


102 


100.0 


38 


100 







TABLE 113 

Showing the number of school districts, the number of district school 
boards, and the number of district school trustees (non-city districts 
only considered). 



Number 


Having each 


Having in all 


of 
Counties 


Districts and 

boards in 

number 


Trustees in 
number 


Districts and 

boards in 

number 


Trustees in 
number 



1 


2 


6 


2 


6 


23 


3 


9 


69 


207 


28 


4 


12 


112 


336 


10 


5 


15 


50 


150 


15 


6 


18 


90 


270 


16 


7 


21 


112 


336 


3 


8 


24 


24 


72 


1 


9 


27 


9 


27 


3 


10 


30 


30 


90 


100 


2-10 


6-30 


498 


1,494 



386 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 114 

Showing the extent to which provisions of existing laws are met or neg- 
lected by district school boards, according to reports by the division 
superintendents. 



DO DISTRICT SCHOOL BOARDS— 



Yes 



No 



Make regulations for the government of the schools? 

Employ and dismiss teachers? 

Suspend and expel pupils? 

Furnish free textbooks to indigent children? 

Meet regularly at fixed intervals? 

Hold patrons' meetings? 

Annually prepare estimates for their needs? 

Visit the schools? 

Record in minutes authorization for all payments of bills?. . . . 
Indicate on each warrant the specific purpose of issuance?. . . . 
Change salary contracts only with written approval of super- 
intendent? 

Observe the law as to minimum legal average attendance?. . . . 

Have the clerks keep all teachers' registers? 

Enter into written contracts with all teachers before they 

begin to teach? 

Prepare, publish, and post an annual statement according to 

law? 



57 


34 


91 





77 


14 


91 





30 


61 


11 


80 


67 


24 


81 


10 


35 


56 


35 


56 


39 


54 


32 


59 


53 


38 


70 


21 


78 


13 



Statistical Tables 



387 



TABLE 115 

Showing the Education of Division Superintendents (Counties 
and Cities) 1918-19. 



EDUCATION 



College graduates 

Attended college at least one year, non-graduates 

Normal school graduates 

One or more years of high school education only. . 

Education less than high school 

Not reported 

Total 



66 

21 

2. 

13: 

2 

1 



105 



TABLE 116 

Showing the salaries oj division superintendents (counties only), 1918-19 



Salary 



Number 



Salary 



Number 



Salary 



Number 



Under ....$900. 


8 


$1,300-$1,399. 


5 


$1,800-$1,899. 


7 


$ 900-$ 999. 


4 


1,400- 1,499. 


6 


1,900- 1,999. 


5 


1,000- 1,099. 


11 


1,500- 1,599. 


10 


2,000- 2,499. 


8 


1,100- 1,199. 


4 


1,600- 1,699. 


5 


2,500- 2,999. 


1 


1,200- 1,299. 


10 


1,700- 1,799. 


2 


3,000 or more 


1 



388 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 117 

Showing gross receipts for the school year ending June 30, 1918 
(Cents omitted)a 

RECEIPTS 



10 
11 
12 
13 

14 



STATE FUNDS 



LOCAL FUNDS 



Amount 



Balances July 1, 1917 

Apportionment No. 1 (1 mill tax) 

Apportionment No. 2 (special) 

One-and Two-Room School Fund (b) 

Rural Graded School Fund (b) 

High School Fund (6) 

Agricultural School Fund (b ) 

Normal Training School Fund(fr) 

Summer Normal School Fund(fr) 

Retired Teachers' Fund(c) 

Literary Fund Principal 

Literary Fund Income 

Appropriations from State Department (d) 
All other receipts 

Total State revenues 



76,138 

,816,000 

164,236 

200,000 

75,000 

100,000 

32,000 

20,000 

40,000 

66,483 

276,746 

106,749 

20,904 

16,229 



$3,010,485 



Amount 



1 Balances county and district — 

2 Balances city 

3 County levies 

4 Other county funds 

5 District levies 

6 Other district funds 

7 City levies 

8 Other city funds 

Total local revenues 

Total of State and local funds 



814,560 

143,799 
1,187,270 

831,917 

1,681,559 

21,648 

2,042,278 

464,652 



$7,187,683 



$10,198,168 



a For detailed items, see Report of the (Virginia) Superintendent 
of Public Instruction, 1917-18, pp. 62 ft*. 

b Appropriations by the General Assembly. 

c State appropriation, $10,000; deductions from teachers' salaries, 
$53,210; balance interest, etc. 

d Of expenses of State Department, $11,354 paid out of income of 
Literary Fund, balance appropriations. 



Statistical Tables 



389 



TABLE 118 

Showing disbursements of school funds for school year ending June SO, 1918 
DISBURSEMENTS 



EXPENSE 


Amount 


Per cent 


I General control 


$ 285.316.99 
5,422,761.35 
629,450.04 
208,360.85 
147,224.42 
279,482.62 
1,140,631.15 
633,846.78 


3 


II Instruction 


62 


Ill Operation of school plants 




7 


IV Maintenance of school plants 


3 


V Auxiliary agencies 

VI Miscellaneous 




2 
3 


VII Permanent outlay 


13 


VIII Other payments 


7 








Total net disbursements. . 


$8,747,074.20 


100 






Increment of Literary Fund. . . . 
Delinquent taxes 


$161,632.10 

87,454.32 

159,102.68 


408,289.10 




Treasurers' commissions 










Gross disbursements 


$9,155,363.30 





390 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 119 

Showing the 'position of Virginia with respect to the financial support 

of schools 





Expenditures for schools 


i, 1915-16 


STATES 


Per capita of 

total 
population 


Per capita of 

school 
population 


Per pupil in 

average daily 

attendance 


United States 


$6.28 
7.12 
7.72 
3.18 
3.30 
9.53 
3.33 


$23.87 
30.38 
30.28 
10.48 
10.64 
43.08 
10.97 


$41.72 


North Atlantic States. . . . 
North Central States 
South Atlantic States. . . . 
South Central States 
Western States 


52.20 
48.64 
19.78 
21.32 
67.08 


Virginia 


21.53 


Position of Virginia. . . . 


39 


39 


41 



Table compiled from data given on pages 79-82 of the Report of the 
(U. S.) Commission of Education, 1917, Vol. II. 



Statistical Tables 



391 



TABLE 120 

Showing the number of counties and cities expending various amounts for 
instruction per pupil enrolled in 1917-18 


Amount Expended per 


Counties 


Cities 


Pupil Enrolled, 

1917-18 


White 
schools 


Colored 
schools 


White 
schools 


Colored 
schools 


Under ..$2.00 




1 

14 

25 

22 

14 

15 

3 

1 

1 






$ 2.00-$ 2.99 








3.00- 3.99 








4.00- 4.99 






1 


5.00- 5.99 


2 
6 
3 
6 
8 

14 
7 
9 

13 
6 

20 
4 

9 




2 


6.00- 6.99 




2 


7.00- 7.99 




3 


8.00- 8.99 




3 


9.00- 9.99 


1 


2 


10.00- 10.99 


3 


11.00- 11.99 






3 


12.00- 12.99 




1 
4 
1 
8 
3 
3 


1 


13.00- 13.99 






14.00- 14.99 






15.00- 19.99 






20.00- 24.99 






25.00- 27.81 












Median 


$12.76 


$4.19 


$17.71 


$8.55 







Table compiled from data given in pp. 106-108 of the Report of the 
(Virginia) Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1917-18, which see 
for the records of individual counties and cities. 



392 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 121 

Showing the estimated amount of money needed for teachers 1 salaries in 
Virginia on the basis of 15,000 teachers employed (i. e., one teacher to 
every S0-S5 pupils enrolled). 





Average annual salary 


Average length of term 


Average 


per term of 






Monthly 












Salary 
















Seven 


Eight 


Nine 


Seven 


Eight 


Nine 




months 


months 


months 


months 


months 


months 


S 40 


$280 


$320 


$360 


$ 4,200,000 


$ 4,800,000 


$ 5,400,000 


45 


315 


360 


405 


4,725,000 


5,400,000 


6,075,000 


50 


350 


400 


450 


5,250,000 


6,000,000 


6,750,000 


55 


385 


440 


495 


5,775,000 


6,600,000 


7,425,000 


60 


420 


480 


540 


6,300,000 


7,200,000 


8,100,000 


65 


455 


520 


585 


6,825,000 


7,800,000 


8,775,000 


70 


490 


560 


630 


7,350,000 


8,400,000 


9,450,000 


75 


525 


600 


675 


7,875,000 


9,000,000 


10,125,000 


80 


560 


640 


720 


8,400,000 


9,600,000 


10,800,000 


85 


595 


680 


765 


8,925,000 


10,200,000 


11,475,000 


90 


630 


720 


810 


9,450,000 


10,800,000 


12,150,000 


95 


665 


760 


855 


9,975,000 


11,400,000 


12,825,000 


100 


700 


800 


900 


10,500,000 


12,000,000 


13,500,000 



TABLE 122 

Showing the estimated amount of money needed for instructional purposes 
on the basis (a) of 325,000 pupils, and (b) of 850,000 pupils in average 
daily attendance. 



RATE PER PUPIL 



325,000 pupils 



350,000 pupils 



$15 
20 
25 
30 
35 



$4,875,000 
6,500,000 
8,125,000 
9,750,000 

10,375,000 



$5,250,000 

7,000,000 

8,750,000 

10,500,000 

12,250.000 



Statistical Tables 



393 



TABLE 123 

Showing for each county and city of Virginia in 1917-18 (a) certain 
assessed valuations, (b) cost of instruction per pupil enrolled, (c) pro- 
portions of all funds and of instructional funds received from the State. 



0) o 

00 <0 

o>:75 

00 Q, 



COUNTIES 



'00 

<L ST 

+= Oh 
tO"- 

-, 03 o 



K 



£- 03 
«"£ 

6 4> 

co 

CO-— 

<D 03 

CO <D 

00 S- 
03 

o o g 

*2£ 



K 



a> o3 



2-c 
> £ « 

~ CD 

§-a< 

oo 3 1 

"a! 






Cost of instruction 
per pupil 



U 



S S3 

p a 



§T3 3 
o a> m 

£ i> o 



Ph 



Accomac 

Albemarle 

Alexandria 

Alleghany 

Amelia 

Amherst 

Appomattox 

Augusta 

Bath 

Bedford 

Bland 

Botetourt 

Brunswick 

Buchanan 

Buckingham. . . 

Campbell 

Caroline 

Carroll 

Charles City.. . 

Charlotte 

Chesterfield... . 

Clarke 

Craig 

Culpeper 

Cumberland 

Dickenson 

Dinwiddie 

Elizabeth City. 

Essex 

Fairfax 

Fauquier 

Floyd 

Fluvanna 

Franklin 



$ 869 

1,001 

2,924 

1,407 

640 

558 

670 

1,567 

2,129 

671 

1,681 

802 

851 

1,126 

600 

952 

639 

196 

1,209 

839 

2,111 

2,025 

1,088 

1,257 

651 

1,063 

856 

1,913 

661 

1,499 

1,979 

278 

584 

351 



29.0 


$1,144 


30.1 


1,062 


31.5 


3,854 


35.3 


2,093 


33.2 


1,059 


34.2 


1,038 


35.7 


1,228 


32.3 


2,300 


35.6 


2,920 


33.1 


1,212 


20.7 


2,065 


36.5 


1,582 


57.9 


1,308 


33.9 


1,267 


48.2 


873 


21.9 


1,694 


50.8 


1,133 


12.5 


528 


31.5 


1,624 


50.0 


1,406 


36.2 


3,020 


26.7 


3,017 


16.5 


1,474 


36.8 


1,949 


48.2 


986 


22.3 


1,278 


41.7 


1,737 


41.8 


2,870 


33.7 


883 


37.9 


2,301 


39.7 


2,942 


18.5 


413 


19.0 


1,292 


27.1 


536 



10.89 
13.67 
14.10 
13.75 
14.67 
10.37 
11.96 
11.68 
15.51 

9.93 

8.70 
10.88 
16.43 

6.61 
13.22 
12.59 
13.56 

6.37 
26.92 
14.81 
13.09 
10.86 
13.18 
14.39 
18.79 

6.76 
18.08 
11.63 
13.56 
13.29 
16.28 

6.36 
12.93 

6.34 



1.95 
6.10 



6.12 
3.56 
3.37 
2.87 
6.35 
6.07 
5.27 
6.25 
6.28 
2.49 



3.56 
3.99 
4.48 
3.47 
4.57 
3.14 
6.51 
7.48 



5.22 
4.01 



2.98 
3.70 
2.46 
6.44 
5.06 
5.69 
4.10 
4.12 



42 
41 
25 
28 
58 
52 
54 
30 
25 
48 
41 
39 
41 
43 
57 
40 
51 
54 
43 
47 
31 
37 
43 
38 
60 
42 
37 
31 
55 
41 
37 
63 
50 
65 



63 
53 
46 
41 
66 
69 
72 
46 
40 
58 
63 
50 
54 
80 
67 
59 
68 
76 
65 
66 
53 
42 
43 
63 
77 
62 
54 
56 
76 
58 
53 
77 
62 
80 



1 Includes all real estate, personal tangible property, and personal 
tangible property of corporations (except rolling stock of railroads, etc.). 



394 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 123— Continued 

Showing for each county and city of Virginia in 1917-18 (a) certain 
assessed valuations, (b) cost of instruction per pupil enrolled, (c) pro- 
portions of all funds and of instructional funds received from the State. 



COUNTIES 



o C 



Si ' 



i 3 o> 



« 






co a> 

co in 
03 

«~ A' 

O © 






05 03 



03^3 
3 cu 

03 — 
to--. 

0) EX 

j2a 



a 
o 

<-> - 



03 .J. 



+3 - 

+3 -U 



Cost of instruction 
per pupil 



O 



co c3 

flCQ 

3 



.S to 



Frederick 

Giles 

Gloucester 

Goochland 

Grayson 

Greene 

Greensville 

Halifax 

Hanover 

Henrico 

Henry 

Highland 

Isle of Wight 

James City 

King and Queen.. 

King George 

King William. . . . 

Lancaster 

Lee 

Loudoun 

Louisa 

Lunenburg 

Madison 

Mathews 

Mecklenburg 

Middlesex 

Montgomery 

Nansemond 

Nelson 

New. Kent 

Norfolk 

Northampton. . . . 
Northumberland. 
Nottoway 



$1,298 


26.1 


$1,873 


9.52 


6.33 


40 


603 


25.2 


1,411 


10.42 


7.10 


38 


654 


33.8 


870 


12.82 


4.83 


46 


855 


44.8 


1,592 


14.87 


4.20 


49 


320 


19.1 


412 


6.51 




69 


615 


40.9 


906 


8.65 


4.18 


63 


1,005 


35.0 


1,917 


16.23 


4.14 


45 


677 


38.9 


1,030 


12.45 


3.12 


50 


965 


50.6 


1,661 


12.90 


4.73 


39 


3,230 


28.0 


4,127 


17.54 


8.54 


23 


492 


35.5 


751 


10.33 


3.22 


56 


2,080 


43.5 


2,537 


13.18 


6.30 


22 


1,140 


43.8 


1,704 


16.43 


2.25 


40 


1,740 


46.4 


3,029 


20.05 


2.61 


26 


618 


37.7 


847 


17.00 


3.15 


56 


921 


37.0 


1,213 


10.63 


6.22 


42 


736 


27.7 


1,174 


17.52 


3.62 


54 


705 


44.6 


1,052 


15.30 


3.44 


55 


430 


27.4 


802 


7.91 


5.25 


55 


2,074 


42.0 


2,944 


16.10 


5.38 


27 


666 


37.1 


1,424 


13.80 


3.13 


49 


750 


29.5 


1,237 


13.61 


2.68 


47 


877 


31.0 


1,168 


11.97 


3.74 


52 


670 


29.7 


939 


12.73 


3.87 


61 


525 


31.5 


928 


12.16 


2.84 


48 


708 


24.9 


987 


12.79 


4.90 


57 


658 


22.9 


1,280 


8.81 


4.06 


43 


715 


39.5 


1,572 


19.47 


3.37 


43 


691 


26.7 


1,383 


11.27 


3.63 


47 


980 


34.4 


1,848 


20.40 


3.68 


42 


1,895 


42.3 


2,681 


18.85 


5.61 


28 


1,006 


23.7 


1,718 


22.41 


3.30 


37 


799 


35.0 


1,345 


12.90 


2.64 


45 


853 


43.3 


1,460 


16.03 


4.19 


44 



58 
52 
69 
63 
87 
77 
71 
68 
58 
34 
67 
37 
63 
53 
64 
77 
58 
68 
66 
40 
66 
62 
67 
S5 
62 
66 
66 
64 
56 
62 
44 
48 
70 
41 



1 Includes all real estate, personal tangible property, and personal 
tangible property of corporations (except rolling stock of railroads, etc.). 



Statistical Tables 



395 



TABLE 123— Continued 

Showing for each county and city of Virginia in 1917-18 (a) certain 
assessed valuations, (b) cost of instruction per pupil enrolled, (c) pro- 
portions of all funds and of instructional funds received from the State. 



COUNTIES 



"° X 


•2 1 




m o 


03 


D.P O 


state — Asses 
ion per pupil 
1917-18. 


i assessment 
n real estat 
at. 


d valuation 
enrolled, of i 
personal pr 
., 1917-18.1 


•■Stf 


o "J <u 


g-.2-e 


Real 
valu 
rolle 


Rate 
1914 
Per 


Asses 

pupi 

esta 

erty, e 



Cost of instruction 
per pupil 



o 
U 



Orange 

Page 

Patrick 

Pittsylvania 

Powhatan 

Prince Edward. . 
Prince George... 
Princess Anne... 
Prince William.. 

Pulaski 

Rappahannock. . 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Rockbridge 

Rockingham. . . . 

Russell 

Scott 

Shenandoah 

Smyth 

Southampton 

Spotsylvania 

Stafford 

Surry 

Sussex 

Tazewell 

Warren 

Warwick 

Washington 

Westmoreland... 

Wise 

Wythe 

York 

All counties. . . 



$1,417 


41.5 


12,158 


750 


27.4 


1,250 


266 


29.3 


398 


582 


32.6 


873 


1,109 


36.2 


1,640 


857 


44.7 


1,310 


2,273 


42.9 


2,761 


1,242 


28.3 


1,795 


1,219 


36.3 


2,053 


875 


23.1 


1,328 


1,216 


33.9 


1,773 


658 


50.3 


1,011 


1,307 


30.1 


1,843 


1,382 


36.3 


2,040 


1,550 


39.7 


2,078 


590 


17.2 


931 


231 


26.0 


486 


1,080 


30.9 


1,617 


637 


24.4 


934 


750 


42.9 


1,323 


1,027 


41.7 


1,529 


680 


25.2 


1,375 


830 


57.2 


1,254 


1,143 


56.4 


2,016 


761 


21.2 


1,141 


813 


32.4 


1,338 


2,195 


56.0 


4,234 


541 


29.2 


874 


666 


50.2 


971 


833 


29.7 


1,146 


950 


29.9 


1,465 


871 


32.0 


1,293 


$946 


33.5 


$1,449 



17.72 

9.61 

5.25 

7.57 

11.80 

21.64 

14.83 

15.92 

13.68 

9.58 

13.00 

10.61 

10.52 

11.87 

9.91 

7.82 

5.20 

10.47 

10.09 

19.20 

10.32 

8.81 

18.08 

25.38 

9.09 

8.77 

17.14 

9.45 

10.76 

8.35 

9.76 

10.53 



4.13 


38 1 


3.95 


47 


2.04 


55 


2.29 


50 


4.27 


53 


4.37 


46 


3.78 


23 


3.03 


40 


5.46 


36 


5.19 


37 


4.51 


42 


3.67 


57 


7.26 


35 


5.82 


41 


6.12 


30 


5.96 


48 


3.00 


56 


4.62 


38 


6.60 


39 


3.25 


33 


4.66 


53 


6.67 


45 


2.58 


42 


3.23 


37 


9.20 


35 


6.67 


45 


4.08 


28 


5.64 


46 


4.63 


53 


5.64 


42 


4.69 


42 


5.27 


45 


.4.18 


43 



1 Includes all real estate, personal tangible property, and personal 
tangible property of corporations (except rolling stock of railroads, etc. ) . 



396 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 123— Continued. 

Showing for each county and city of Virginia in 1917-18 (a) certain 
assessed valuations, (b) cost of instruction per pupil enrolled, (c) pro- 
portions of all funds and of instructional funds received from the State. 



CITIES 


Real estate — Assessed 
valuation per pupil en- 
rolled, 1917-18. 


Rate of assessment in 
1914 on real estate— 
Per cent. 


Assessed valuation per 
pupil enrolled, of real 
estate, personal prop- 
erty, etc.. 1917-19. * 


Cost of instruction 
per pupil 

® £ - 

rg o o 
P O H 


Per cent of funds re- 
ceived from State — 
Instructional. 


Alexandria 

Bristol 

Charlottesville.. . 

Clifton Forge 

Danville 


$2,392 
2,323 
1,240 
2,104 
1,467 
2,775 
2,145 


51.8 
47.2 
59.9 
49.2 
46.6 
63.8 
76.5 


$2,883 
2,656 
1,671 
2,559 
2,289 
3,234 
2,531 


14.37 
18.06 
12.37 
13.65 
17.71 
16.73 
13.08 
13.70 
15.79 


10.21 
8.18 

11.38 
4.27 

10.23 
8.81 
7.40 

11.09 


32 
20 
25 
32 
31 
19 
32 
32 
17 


40 
26 
30 
40 
24 
28 


Fredericksburg.. . 
Hampton 


36 

27 


Harrisonburg. . . . 


1..806 




2,240 


19 


Newport News. . . 
Norfolk 


3,734 
2,289 
4,182 
2,440 
1,833 
1534 
3,961 
2,429 
3,105 
2,104 
2,087 
2,604 


56.2 
70.2 
51.3 
62.9 
46.7 
59.7 
54.8 
48.8 
47.2 
47.4 
69.9 
44.9 


4,430 
2,933 
4,975 
2,897 
2,271 
1,986 
4,551 
3,359 
3,750 
2,756 
2,613 
3,053 


25.99 
17.96 
27.81 
20.03 
18.46 
9.15 
26.63 
16.73 
18.85 
21.38 
24.03 
13.02 


9.75 

9.77 

12.31 

6.53 

6.61 

5.80 

10.55 

11.14 

8.28 

7.16 

5.58 

7.89 


16 
19 
13 
18 
23 
29 
12 
21 
10 
18 
31 
23 


19 
20 
18 


Radford 


24 
26 
37 


Richmond 

Roanoke 


16 
20 


Suffolk 


42 
26 


Williamsburg 


26 
26 




$3,189 


53.1 


$3,794 


$17.69 




21 


20 


State 


$1,407 




$1,931 








44 



1 Includes all real estate, personal tangible property, and personal 
tangible property of corporations (except rolling stock of railroads, etc.) • 



Statistical Tables 



397 



TABLE 124 

Showing certain facts concerning schools in Virginia by counties and cities 



COUNTIES 



Length 
of term 
in days 



Per cent of 
enrolment 
in average 

daily 
attendance 






o 

rj 



Number 
of pupils 
enrolled 
per teacher 
employed 



O 



Average 

annual 

salaries of 

teachers 



Accomac 

Albemarle 

Alexandria 

Alleghany 

Amelia 

Amherst 

Appomattox 

Augusta 

Bath 

Bedford 

Bland 

Botetourt 

Brunswick 

Buchanan 

Buckingham. . . 

Campbell 

Caroline 

Carroll 

Charles City. . . 

Charlotte 

Chesterfield — 

Clarke , 

Craig 

Culpeper 

Cumberland... 
Dickenson. 
Dinwiddie 
Elizabeth City 

Essex 

Fairfax 

Fauquier 

Floyd 

Fluvanna 

Franklin 

Frederick 



176 
146 
200 
154 
146 
130 
146 
138 
140 
146 
126 
134 
156 
120 
130 
146 
158 
120 
172 
142 
158 
154 
138 
154 
158 
126 
150 
194 
144 
158 
160 
118 
144 
116 
112 



130 
116 
200 
154 
122 
98 
80 
118 
118 
130 
120 
112 
120 



120 
108 
122 
100 
128 
110 
138 
142 

ii6 

126 

io6 

166 
118 
138 
126 
108 
114 
114 
120 



83 


75 


35 


87 


$376 


60 


63 


26 


31 


362 


62 


56 


40 


41 


558 


77 


63 


35 


54 


487 


67 


57 


24 


44 


349 


64 


70 


27 


37 


286 


55 


48 


27 


42 


317 


66 


65 


27 


29 


320 


62 


56 


22 


41 


347 


53 


59 


32 


36 


320 


60 


66 


30 


29 


261 


64 


70 


27 


32 


304 


61 


47 


26 


53 


421 


70 




39 




260 


59 


62 


22 


40 


300 


61 


62 


30 


41 


379 


79 


68 


27 


42 


352 


65 


68 


39 


39 


249 


72 


49 


17 


52 


458 


62 


50 


26 


47 


404 


66 


51 


29 


36 


385 


71 


63 


31 


37 


337 


80 




26 




351 


60 


50 


25 


32 


360 


60 


70 


20 


44 


377 


71 




38 




259 


69 


55 


21 


49 


377 


72 


64 


44 


47 


520 


61 


55 


24 


43 


330 


69 


67 


31 


37 


408 


60 


51 


27 


38 


447 


62 


61 


33 


24 


210 


61 


51 


22 


33 


283 


56 


53 


51 


38 


213 


60 


47 


27 


33 


260 



$170 
188 
411 
325 
158 
126 
120 
186 
249 
191 
181 
201 
132 

m 

165 
184 
137 
238 
142 
234 
280 

184 
178 

*i46 

217 
145 
239 
192 
169 
135 
157 
212 



398 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 124— Continued 
Showing certain facts concerning schools in Virginia by counties and cities 



COUNTIES 



Length 
of term 
in days 



O 



Per cent of 
enrolment 
in average 

daily 
attendance 






O 



Number 
of pupils 
enrolled 
per teacher 
employed 



Average 

annual 

salaries of 

teachers 






Giles 

Gloucester 

Goochland 

Grayson 

Greene 

Greensville 

Halifax 

Hanover 

Henrico 

Henry 

Highland 

Isle of Wight 

James City 

King and Queen.. 

King George 

King William .... 

Lancaster 

Lee 

Loudoun 

Louisa 

Lunenburg 

Madison 

Mathews 

Mecklenburg 

Middlesex 

Montgomery 

Nansemond 

Nelson 

New Kent 

Norfolk 

Nottoway 

Northampton 

Northumberland 

Orange 

Page 



130 


106 


63 


77 


31 


22 


£319 


156 


134 


73 


60 


26 


44 


329 


146 


138 


61 


51 


21 


44 


310 


122 


100 


73 


76 


33 


43 


217 


120 


100 


67 


56 


28 


41 


246 


156 


118 


66 


52 


26 


48 


422 


138 


116 


72 


68 


28 


48 


348 


158 


158 


61 


55 


36 


55 


347 


198 


198 


76 


71 


28 


37 


483 


130 


116 


54 


55 


31 


45 


322 


138 


122 


66 


58 


43 


28 


353 


168 


108 


72 


65 


28 


68 


459 


176 


104 


73 


58 


25 


40 


503 


164 


112 


70 


56 


20 


42 


346 


130 


138 


56 


48 


25 


40 


264 


158 


124 


63 


57 


22 


37 


377 


150 


120 


69 


59 


25 


43 


375 


128 


140 


53 


70 


44 


32 


349 


160 


118 


61 


60 


28 


35 


443 


148 


104 


55 


49 


20 


36 


275 


138 


118 


59 


56 


28 


56 


361 


136 


110 


65 


57 


26 


41 


307 


156 


108 


66 


63 


35 


36 


320 


148 


116 


63 


48 


31 


57 


372 


164 


126 


78 


59 


25 


42 


393 


138 


120 


63 


68 


32 


41 


285 


178 


124 


70 


69 


24 


61 


465 


136 


96 


54 


63 


26 


37 


278 


140 


102 


70 


60 


18 


38 


370 


184 


168 


71 


62 


31 


56 


593 


164 


136 


74 


55 


25 


48 


467 


176 


136 


73 


45 


32 


97 


532 


150 


108 


67 


62 


34 


33 


365 


144 


100 


93 


63 


21 


36 


365 


128 


100 


66 


64 


31 


36 


297 



$157 
218 
186 
126 
171 
198 
150 
164 
313 
144 
173 
153 
142 
133 
250 
172 
165 
168 
188 
113 
150 
155 
140 
163 
206 
167 
205 
136 
140 
313 
188 
221 
139 
146 
142 



Statistical Tables 



399 



TABLE 124— Continued 
Showing certain facts concerning schools in Virginia by counties and cities 



COUNTIES 



Length 
of term 
in days 



U 



Per cent of 
enrolment 
in average 

daily 
attendance 



Number 
of pupils 
enrolled 
per teacher 
employed 



tj 




o 


9) 


o 




o 


J3 


O 


Is 



Average 

annual 

salaries of 

teachers 



O 



Patrick 

Pittsylvania .... 

Powhatan. 

Prince Edward. . 
Prince George. . . 
Princess Anne... 
Prince William. . 

Pulaski 

Rappahannock. . 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Rockbridge 

Rockingham 

Russell 

Scott 

Shenandoah 

Smyth 

Southampton 

Spotsylvania. . . . 

Stafford 

Surry 

Sussex 

Tazewell 

Warren 

Warwick 

Washington 

Westmoreland... 

Wise 

Wythe 

York 

Average counties 



112 


102 


64 


50 


46 


54 


128 


104 


55 


61 


38 


49 


124 


122 


67 


62 


21 


39 


158 


122 


68 


56 


23 


45 


188 


124 


67 


45 


33 


62 


168 


142 


74 


64 


29 


66 


156 


138 


64 


65 


28 


38 


144 


120 


61 


59 


37 


40 


142 


106 


58 


74 


25 


38 


142 


122 


65 


62 


27 


48 


158 


136 


67 


60 


37 


35 


146 


138 


66 


71 


27 


36 


132 


118 


66 


51 


29 


32 


130 


116 


59 


63 


47 


38 


148 


120 


73 


64 


67 


80 


144 


64 


66 


60 


30 


21 


158 


134 


65 


73 


37 


32 


168 


120 


61 


46 


24 


56 


130 


98 


64 


50 


24 


34 


120 


122 


59 


54 


27 


32 


162 


114 


75 


54 


24 


60 


178 


140 


67 


45 


19 


64 


164 


154 


61 


70 


42 


42 


134 


120 


64 


62 


30 


26 


178 


124 


72 


59 


30 


48 


144 


126 


64 


76 


36 


29 


142 


120 


69 


70 


29 


45 


158 


150 


55 


66 


52 


51 


148 


114 


67 


59 


33 


38 


154 


136 


66 


45 


32 


45 


144 


122 


64 


58 


31 


45 



$243 
260 
250 
489 
502 
461 
389 
358 
321 
286 
389 
324 
288 
370 
352 
317 
375 
465 
251 
235 
435 
504 
378 
264 
508 
326 
315 
434 
326 
340 

$349 



$107 
112 
168 
195 
177 
201 
123 
210 
171 
175 
252 
212 
198 
229 
240 
99 
209 
183 
159 
211 
155 
208 
390 
174 
197 
166 
207 
287 
175 
239 

$183 



x 



400 



The Public Schools of Virginia 



TABLE 124— Continued 



CITIES 



Length 
of term 
in days 



Per cent of 
enrolment 
in average 

daily 
attendance 



Number 
of pupils 
enrolled 
per teacher 
employed 



Average 

annual 

salaries of 

teachers 



T3 




na 




-d 




03 
O 




O 


+3 


09 
(* 
O 


-t-5 




A 


o 


lo 


o 


-a 


O 


IS 


O 


5 


O 


£ 



o 

"o 
O 



Alexandria 

Bristol 

Buena Vista — 
Charlottesville. 
Clifton Forge... 

Danville 

Fredericksburg 

Hampton 

Harrisonburg. . 

Lynchburg 

Newport News. 

Norfolk 

Petersburg 

Portsmouth — 

Radford 

Richmond 

Roanoke 

Staunton 

Suffolk 

Williamsburg... 
Winchester 

Average cities.. 
Average State.. 



180 


188 


80 


80 


48 


47 


$687 


174 


174 


79 


65 


33 


47 


604 


180 


130 


67 


66 


41 


36 


502 


178 


182 


74 


64 


36 


69 


496 


180 


180 


85 


75 


30 


36 


558 


178 


174 


80 


80 


37 


41 


658 


180 


180 


83 


78 


53 


50 


691 


182 




77 




41 




556 


174 


154 


75 


69 


38 


31 


594 


182 


182 


83 


82 


35 


53 


900 


180 


178 


75 


54 


38 


55 


676 


200 


200 


89 


87 


30 


40 


822 


176 


174 


80 


78 


36 


69 


729 


188 


188 


81 


79 


43 


58 


798 


180 


140 


79 


73 


51 


42 


469 


170 


174 


71 


73 


29 


45 


764 


176 


142 


78 


68 


60 


60 


658 


172 


172 


80 


73 


36 


46 


681 


180 


180 


89 


88 


30 


48 


563 


180 


180 


71 


65 


29 


57 


707 


200 


200 


84 


73 


46 


50 


611 


180 


180 


77 


79 


38 


48 


$734 


150 


134 


67 


62 


32 


45 







383 
404 
297 
366 
364 
374 

354 
579 
540 
488 
449 
420 
244 
475 
434 
376 
327 
315 
400 

$461 



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